Class 12 Physical Education Revision Notes: Practice, Revise, Succeed

Physical Education Notes for CBSE Examination

Food intolerance: Food intolerance means an inability to digest a particular food ingredient or substance is called food intolerance. It means the individual element of certain food that cannot be properly processed and absorbed by the digestive system.

Healthy-Weight: Healthy weight is that body weight which allows an individual to lead a healthy life without any risk of diseases. The healthy weight is determined with the use of height and weight chart or calculated by the BMI using the height, weight data.

Methods to control ‘Healthy Body Weight’:

• Set appropriate goal
• Monitor the calorie intake.
• Health is more important than losing weight
• Healthy life style
• Regular physical exercise
• Pranayam
• Balance diet
• Avoid skipping meals.

Nutritive and Non-nutritive components of diet

Nutritive components of diet:

i) Carbohydrate: The main source of providing energy. Starch - It obtains from wheat, maize, beet, potato, rice, coneflower etc. Sugar – It obtains from Milk, beet, sugarcane, honey. Cellulose - It obtains from cereals, vegetables, fruits etc.

ii) Fats: Animals sources – Ghee, Butter, Curd, Fish Oil, Milk, Meat, Egg. Vegetable Sources- Soyabean, Olive, Mustard, Coconut, Groundnut, etc.

iii) Proteins:

• Form new tissues; Repair the broken tissues; Regulate balance of water and acids; Transport oxygen and nutrients.
• Excessive proteins cause heart disease, kidney stones.
• Deficiency of proteins cause disease like Marasmus and Kwashiorkar. Sources – Milk, pulses, cereals, cheese, etc.

iv) Vitamins:
(i) Vitamin A – [Milk, Mango, Papaya]; Its deficiency causes ‘night blindness’. • Helps in formation of bones and teeth.
(ii) Vitamin B – [Milk, Sunlight, Butter]; Its deficiency causes ‘Rickets’ dental cavity. • Maintains the level of calcium and phosphorus.
(iii) Vitamin E – [Pulses, Cereals, Green leafy vegetables] • Keeps skin healthy; helps in curing cancer; to prevent heart attacks; maintains normal functioning for reproductive organs.
(iv) Vitamin K – [Tomato, Potato, Wheat, Soyabean]; Its deficiency causes ‘Anaemia’. • Helps to clot the blood.
(v) Vitamin C – [Lemon, Pineapple, Guava, Amla, Oranges, Apple]; Its deficiency causes ‘Scurvy’. • Maintains healthy gums and teeth.

V) Minerals: Calcium (Milk), Potassium (Green Vegetables), Iodine (Salt), Iron (Dry Fruits)

Non Nutritive components of diet:

i) Fibre or Roughage: It has no nutrient value. It is undigested part of the food. It prevents constipation. Source – Fresh fruits, Vegetables, Oats.

ii) Water: It carries the nutrients to various cells of the body through blood. Blood comprises 90% of water. Water is significant in the excretion of waste products. It also regulates the body temperature. About 20% of water intake comes from food and remaining intake comes from drinking water.

iii) Colour Compounds: Colour compounds make food more appetizing and attractive.

iv) Flavour Compounds: Flavour compounds e.g. acidic food provides sour taste while alkaline food provides a bitter taste.

v) Plant Compounds: – There are many quantity, may increase heart-rate and urination.

Motor Development

Development of child’s bones, muscles and ability to move around and manipulate his/her environment.

Types of Motor Development:

Gross motor development skills: Involves the large muscles of the body that enable such functions – walking, kicking, sitting, lifting and throwing etc.

Fine motor development skills: These are associated with the muscles of the body such as finger and hands for activities like writing, gripping, and holding, throwing, aerobic exercises etc.

Factors affecting motor development:
a. Heredity: The motor development largely depends on the genetic factors. Many attributes like height, body weight, muscle mass etc. are acquired from parents.
b. Environment: Children are surrounded by home and school environment.
c. Physical Activity: Regular physical activities always promote motor development. The activities should be planned according to the age.
d. Nutrition: Proper nutrition always leads to good motor development.
e. Immunization: Timely immunization of mother and child always facilitate better sensory motor development.
f. Education, learning, training and practice

Exercise guidelines at different stages of growth in children

Infancy - (1-2 years)

• Gross motor developmental skills
• Head Control
• Sitting
• Crawling
• Moving arms, legs
• Reaching to various object
• Infants should be provided with objects, toys and games
• Throwing, Catching and kicking a ball

Early Childhood (3 to 7 years)

• Fine motors developmental skills i.e. coordinative activities.
• Movement skills(throwing, jumping, catching or kicking the ball)
• Emphasis on participation and not on competition.
• Structured as well as unstructured physical activities should be performed daily for at least sixty minutes.
• They may be allowed to watch quality programmes on T.V. for one to two hours.

Later Childhood – (8 to 12 years)

• Stunts, throwing, jumping, Catching, running etc so that they can acquire body control, strength and coordination.
• Participation in organized or team games which aim to develop social consciousness in them.
• Children should be introduced to competitive sports and taught the basic rules of sports competition.
• Introduction of concept of endurance, strength, agility, coordination and balance.

Common Postural Deformities

1. Knock Knees – Both the knees knock or touch each other in normal standing position. The gap between ankles goes on increasing. difficulty in walking and running.
Causes: Chronic illness, Deficiency of calcium, vitamin D, Mal nutrition.
Corrective measures for knock knees: Horse riding, Kicking football by instep kick, Putting a pillow between the knees, Padmasan, Gomukhasana, Walking on inner side of the foot.

2. Flat foot – Found in newly born babies; they feel pain in feet; face problem in standing and walking.
Causes: Genetic, Weak muscles, Over weight, Improper foot wear, Carrying heavy weight, Forcing child to stand up at very early stage.
Corrective measures for flat foot: Walking on heels, Walking on toes, Rope skipping, Jumping on toes, Perform vajrasan, Tada asana, Picking pebbles by toes, Running on inclined plane / Stairs, Cycling.

3. Scoliosis – Bending, twisting or rotating. These are sideways curves; scoliosis curves in ‘S’ shape.
Causes: injury of the bones and joints, faulty posture, weakness or paralysis of the muscles, diseases like TB or Rickets, Carrying/lifting heavy loads, Heredity.

4. Lordosis – Lordosis is a postural deformity of the spine. In this deformity, the spine curvature is increased inward in the lumbar region.
Causes: Unbalanced diet, improper environment, improper development in muscles.

5. Kyphosis – Round upperback, depression of chest.
Causes: Malnutrition, illness, deficiency of pure air, insufficient exercise.

6. Bow Legs – It is opposite to knock knees position. There is a wide gap between the knees; feet together. The individual has bow legs.
Causes: Deficiency of calcium and phosphorus in bones.

7. Round Shoulders – Shoulders become round and bent forward.
Causes: Heredity; sitting, standing, and walking in bent position.

Benefits of physical activities for children with special needs

• physical improvement
• Reduce risk of health complications
• Mental improvement
• Improve self-esteem and develop self confidence
• Reduce level of anxiety, stress and depression
• Cognitive benefits
• Better emotional and psychological health

Types of disability

1. Cognitive Disability:
• Language and learning disorder - This includes special children who have problem in listening speaking, writing, reading, reasoning and mathematical calculations.
• Mental Retardation - A person is considered mentally retarded if he has an IQ below 70 (Average IQ-100) and if they have difficulty in functional independently.
• Head injury and stroke - These injuries usually results in physical impairments.

2. Intellectual Disability: Intellectual Disability (ID) is the general learning Disability and mental disorder, which is a generalized neuro-developmental disorder.

3. Physical Disability: Motor deficiency or sensory impairment that affects the mobility and manual skills is physical Disability.

Types of Disorders

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): It is a group of behavioral symptoms that include inattentiveness, hyperactivity and impulsiveness. In fact it is a medical condition that indicates that the child cannot sit still, focus and pay attention.

2. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): It is a behavioural disorder defined by chronic aggression, frequent outbursts, and a tendency to ignore requests and purposely irritate others. In fact, 4 out of 10 children with ADHD also show signs of ODD.
Cause: Genetic - There is a strong genetic link of ODD development. Individuals with immediate family members who struggle with mental illness are more likely to have ODD than the members of the general population.

Sports Participation of Women in India

Participation in Games and Sports contribute to the psychological development of women athletes in India:

• Self-image and body image
• Self confidence
• Self esteem
• Positive aggression
• Competitiveness
• Overcome depression
• Emotional and mental balance

Keeping in view the Indian ideology, critically analyze the sociological aspect of participation by women athletes in sports:

• Family
• School
• culture
• lack of facility
• Lack of role model
• Less of coaches

How can women’s participation in sports and games be encouraged in India?

• Self confidence must be developed in women
• Female role model to be highlighted
• More time and facilities to be given to women participation
• Women should be aware regarding the benefits of sports. (Job opportunities, Personality development etc.)
• Better safety measures to be implemented.
• Legislation regarding women in sports should be more flexible.
• Attitude of spectators and media should be motivating
• Women coaches should be appointed in more number
• Equal importance to be given to female in sports

Female Athletes Triad

Female Athletes Triad became apparent in 1990. It was considered that it is associated with disordered eating, secondary amenorrhea and bone mineral disorder. In 1997 American College of Sports Medicine made a report on Athletes Triad. These disorders can lead to diminishing of physical performance and cause of morbidity or mortality. It was suggested that imparting of knowledge of Athletes Triad can minimize the health hazards associated with it.

The factors of athlete triad are explained below:-

1. Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is weakening of the bones due to the loss of bone density.
Symptoms: • Back Pain • Bone Fracture • Bad Posture
Factors / causes of Osteoporosis in women: Insufficient calcium in diet, Lack of Vitamin D, Sedentary life style, Side effects of medication, Thyroid condition, Due to the menstrual dysfunctioning in women, Eating disorders like anorexia bulimia/ poor nutrition.

2. Amenorrhea: Amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation/ menstrual periods in a woman for more than 3 months. Or a girl above age of 18 years who has not begun menstruating.
Menstruation is the shedding of the facing of the uterus that occurs regularly in women from menarche to menopause. It produces bleeding from vagina that ends for 3-7 days. It is characterized by disruptions. Menstrual dysfunction means the irregularity and uncertainty in menstrual cycle of women.
Effect on sports participation:

• Athletic training and exercise neither affect the menarche nor menstrual periods.
• Heavy and intense training program may result in amenorrhea.
• Exercise is beneficial in relieving pain.
• Sometimes Strength decreases during menstrual cycle and affects the performance.
• Less hemoglobin affected oxygen intake, hence Sports Performance is affected.
• Uncertainty in menstrual cycle may cause stress & anxiety.

3. Eating Disorders: Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa
(a) Bulimia: is an eating disorder in which an athlete/person eats excessive amount of food and then vomits in order not to gain body weight.
(b) Anorexia Nervosa: is a type of eating disorder in which an individual desire to lose weight because they have intense fear of gaining weight.
Symptoms: Excessive weight loss, feeling of fat (although they are under weight), using diet pills, excessive exercise, avoid eating, dieting.

Motivation - Its types and techniques

Motivation means to be inspired to do something to achieve the desired goals. OR Motivation is an internal force on which our behaviour or activity depends.

Types/Techniques of Motivation:

i) Intrinsic/ internal motivation: Goal setting, Self appraisal, Auto suggestion, Positive attitude

ii) Extrinsic/external motivation: This motivation is from the outside surroundings

• Praise ,appreciation and criticism
• Record of success and achievement
• Cash prizes, Certificates and trophies
• Role of spectators
• Role model, etc.

1. Knowledge of the Goal – Learner must be made knowledge of result mentally ready towards the achievement of the goal.
2. Knowledge of Result: It helps the person to know about his progress from time to time.
3. Awards / Rewards: Rewards / Awards can be given in the form of Cash, Job or social recognition.
4. Punishment: It can be given in the form of fear, rejection, pain or losing social status etc.

Aggression in sports: The term aggression refers to a type of behavior that can result in both physical and psychological harm to one self/others or any object in the environment.

Personality - meaning and its types

Personality is much more than an individual’s outer appearance. Personality refers to the pattern of thoughts, feeling, social adjustment and behaviour etc.

Jung’s classification of personality:
(a) Judging: Extraversion and Introversion represents the source and cause of an individual every expression.
(b) Sensing: Intuition sensing is a way in which an individual believes and understand the information made or female obtain directly from outside sources.
(c) Thinking-Feeling: Thinking is talking a step in which an individual makes a decision mainly through judgment and logic. A decision based on feelings and emotions.
(d) Judging-Perceiving: It is a way in which a person categorizes and decide the events of life and follows the plans defined by him.

Big Five Personality Theory: OCEAN
The big five traits of personality are:
(i) Openness: Openness means more than frank and expressive; it refers to a high level of receptivity towards new ideas and challenges.
(ii) Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness traits of personality include thoughtfulness, discipline, focus, commitment etc. Individuals who are strong on this dimensions are well-organised, dedicated to plans and schedules.
(iii) Extraversion: It indicates how outgoing and social a person is. A person who scores high in extraversion on a personality test enjoys being with people, participating in social gatherings, and are full of energy they are friendly in nature.
(iv) Agreeableness: Agree able people are kind, compassionate helpful and trusting of others, They show empathy towards others.
(v) Neuroticism: Neurotics are emotionally unstable; they are irritable, nervous, anxious, quick to worry even over the smallest matters, and often fall into depression.

Effects of regular exercise on the cardio-vascular system

1. Increase in size of heart: The heart hypertrophy takes place. Long distance runner athlete cardiac hypertrophy is found more and that is also called athlete heart. The increase in size of the heart takes place with an increase of left ventricular cavity. It is found more in long distance runners and swimmers. In wrestlers, weightlifters and throwers the thickness of left ventricular walls is increased.
2. Decrease in Resting Heart rate: Regular exercise may decrease heart rate at resting up to 10 beats per minute.
3. Stroke Volume Increases at rest: It remains up to 50-70 ml/beat in untrained individuals, 70-90ml/ beat in trained individuals and 90-110 ml/beat in the experienced athletes.
4. Increase in Cardiac output: Cardiac output is the total amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute.
\[ \text{Cardiac output} = \text{Stroke volume} \times \text{Heart Rate} \]
Cardiac output increases when an individual starts doing exercise. At rest, it is 5 litre/minute. During intense exercise it can increase up to 20-40 litre/minute.
5. Increase in Blood Flow: At rest, 15-20% circulating blood supplies to skeletal muscles. It increases to 80-85% of cardiac output during intense exercise.
6. Decrease in Blood pressure: Regular exercises decreases the blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) by up to 10mm Hg at rest.
7. Reduced Risk of Heart Disease

Physiological changes taking place due to ageing

Ageing is a slow and never ending process. As a result structural and functional activities begin to decline. It is inevitable.

• Changes in muscle size and strength
• Changes in metabolism and body composition
• Changes in Nervous system(reaction time, movement time)
• Changes in cardio vascular system
• Changes in capacity of respiratory system
• Changes in bone density
• Flexibility decreases
• Changes in sensory organs
• Changes in digestive and excretory system.

Oxygen intake and Oxygen uptake:
Oxygen intake: The amount of oxygen intake by an athlete from the atmosphere is called oxygen intake. It depend upon lungs size, strength of muscles and number of alveoli.
Oxygen uptake: The amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by the working muscles from the blood is called oxygen uptake.

Effect of exercise on respiratory system:

• Increase depth of respiration
• Decrease rate of respiration
• Improve vital capacity
• Improve tidal volume capacity (the maximum amount of air that can be breathed in and out in one respiratory system)
• Supply more O2 to muscles
• Strengthen the respiratory muscles
• Avoid second wind with strong will power
• Faster recovery rate
• Increases residual air volume (amount of air, which is left in the lungs after exhalation)
• Increase size of lungs and chest

Coordinative Abilities

Coordinative ability is an ability that enables the sportsman to do a group of movements with better quality and effect.

Types of Coordinate Abilities:
A. Coupling Ability: Coupling ability of the body is considered as capacity of an individual to perform better coordination of different parts of the body. For example while dribbling a basketball, the coordination of both the limbs is required.
B. Reaction Ability: Reaction ability is a skill to react quickly to a stimulus. For example, chaser in Kho-Kho runs quickly after Kho is given.
C. Balance Ability: Balance ability is known as capability of an individual to maintain balance while the body is in motion. Even during distributed balance regaining the lost balance is known as balance ability.
D. Orientation Ability: The orientation ability is a skill to determine and change the position in complex situations. For example defending an opponent in football, the position is changed according to the movement of opponent.
E. Adaptation Ability: Adaptation ability is the capability of person to change the movement on the basis of predicted changes. This ability is achieved after mastering the skills.
F. Rhythm Ability: Rhythm ability is to make out motor actions on a well-defined rhythm.

Circuit Training

What is circuit training? Draw a diagram of 10 stations to improve general fitness. How can load be increased in circuit training?
Circuit training is the training method in which exercise of various kinds are performed with or without apparatus with given dosage.

How to increase the load in circuit training?
1) Number of repetition can be increased per exercise.
2) Frequency can be increased.
3) Additional load can be increased.
4) Interval between exercises can be reduced.
5) Number of rounds can be increased.

Elements/Components of Physical Fitness and Wellness - Strength, Endurance, Speed, Flexibility

1. Strength: It is the ability of the muscles to overcome resistance.
Types: (i) Dynamic strength (ii) Static strength
Dynamic strength can be called isotonic strength because it is related to the movements. In pull-ups and push-ups we require strength. In performing such workout, there is a diminishing tendency in dynamic strength. As a result, after sometime, muscles refuse to do work. Movements are clearly visible when someone uses dynamic strength.
Dynamic strength can be of three types:
(a) Maximum strength - It is the ability to act against maximum resistance. It is used in sports like Weight-lifting, Hammer throw, Javelin throw etc.
(b) Explosive strength - It is the ability to overcome resistance with high speed. It is a combination of strength and speed abilities. Explosive strength is generally used in sprint starts, Weight-lifting, Shot-put, Hammer throw, Long jump, High jump, Triple jump etc.
(c) Strength endurance - It is the ability to overcome resistance under conditions of fatigue. It is commonly used in long distance races, swimming, road cycling and pole vault.
Static strength can be called isometric strength.

Methods of Strength Development

1. Isometric Exercises - Those exercises which are not visible. In fact, there are direct movements which cannot be observed. In these exercises, muscles do not change their length; they remain fixed or constant. For example, if we push a concrete wall, we will be unable to move it from its place. Our muscles exert force while pushing the wall, but work is not done.
2. Isotonic Exercises - Those exercises in which movements can be directly observed. Work is done in these exercises. These exercises tore up the muscles. Muscles become flexible. Length of muscles increases. Examples: Calisthenic exercises, running, jumping on the spot, etc.
3. Iso-kinetic Exercises - Iso-kinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises involve a specific type of muscle contraction, which is usually not applicable in sports and games.

Physiological Factors Determining strength: The muscle strength is defined as the greatest amount of force that muscles can produce in a single and maximal effort. This depends on the following physiological factors:
a) Muscle Cross Sectional Area: The cross sectional area is generally measured with girth measurement.
b) Types of Muscle Fibres: The strength largely depends on the types of muscle fibres.
c) Muscle Length: All individuals have different length of muscles.
d) Age: The age cannot be controlled but people of all ages can develop their muscles.
e) Gender: It is well known that gender does not affect the quality of our muscle, but does influence the quantity.
f) Point of Tendon Insertion: Muscle strength is influenced by the point of tendon insertion of an individual.
g) Nerve Impulses: The muscular strength also depends on nerve impulses and number of motor units.
h) Energy Level: the energy for muscular contraction is derived from the breaking down of phosphogens (ATP & CP)

2. Endurance: Endurance is the ability of the body to work for a long time without getting fatigue. or The ability to sustain a physical activity over longer period of time resisting fatigue is called Endurance.
Types of endurance are:-
(i) Aerobic endurance/ Endurance according to duration of activity
• Long term Endurance • Medium term Endurance • Short term Endurance
(ii) Anaerobic endurance
(iii) Speed endurance
(iv) Strength endurance

Methods of Endurance Development

1. Continuous training method - An exercise is performed for a long duration without any break. In this method, intensity remains low because the exercise is done for a longer period. Cross-country race is the best example of continuous method. In this method, the rate of heart-beat remains in between 140-160 beats/min. The total duration of the exercise should not be less than 30 minutes. It increases the efficiency of heart and lungs.
2. Interval training method - Interval training method is also called terrace training. It is a training of heart, through endurance training. If you run your heart beats at a faster rate.
Dr.Woldemar and Gerschler, introduced this training method in 1930. In this method the athlete used to run 400m. race, 10 to 20 times daily. In fact this training method is based on effort and recovery principle. During interval training recovery period is given to the athlete after each speedy workout. Recovery period can be adjusted according to the efficiency of the athlete. The load can be increased by reducing the recovery period or by increasing the workout. For an athlete following examples are applicable in his training: • 400m. race with 80% speed • Walking or jogging until his heart rate comes down to 120 to 140 approximately.
3. Fartlek Training: Gosta Holmer developed Fartlek training in 1937. Fartlek training method is used for developing endurance. It is a combination of Aerobic and Anaerobic / Continuous and interval training. Fartlek is derived from Swedish word which means “speed play”. Athletes speed or pace is not preplanned and is decided according to the surroundings. Self discipline is most important while undertaking the training. The range of heart beat should be 140 to 180 / minute.
Examples:
(i) Jogging, slow running – 5 to 10 minutes
(ii) Steady, hard running – 1.5 to 2.5/ km
(iii) Rapid walking – 5 minutes
(iv) Sprints for about 50 to 60mts
(v) Full speed up hill running for 175 to 200 mts
Advantages:
(i) The Fartlek route is generally free from polluted areas.
(ii) No coach supervision is required.
(iii) Mass participation if possible.
(iv) The athlete can change pace from high running to jogging.
(v) Fartlek training is normally performed in country side.
(vi) Every athlete is free to run at whatever speed he prefers.

3. Speed: It is the ability to resist fatigue and to sustain stamina.
Methods of Speed Development:
1. Acceleration Run - Acceleration Run is adopted to develop speed, specially in attaining maximum speed. For acceleration run, an athlete is required to run a specific distance, say 100m sprint race. He should practise it at a slow speed. Then, after learning proper technique, he should practice at a higher speed. The number of acceleration runs can be fixed according to age and experience and capacity of the athlete. It may vary from 6 to 12 runs. Before acceleration runs, proper warming must be done. After every acceleration run, there should be an interval of 4 to 5 minutes rest.
2. Pace Run - It means running the whole distance of a race at a constant speed. Generally, 800m and above races are included in pace races. Generally, an athlete can run a distance of 300m at full speed. So, in longer races such as 800m, he must conserve his energy by reducing his speed. For e.g., in 800m race in 1 min. 40 sec., an athlete should run first 400m in 49 seconds and next 400m in 51 sec. This procedure is called pace run or pace race.

Physiological Factors Determining Speed:
i) Nervous System and its Mobility/Reaction time: To generate more speed the muscles have to contract and relax at maximal speed.
ii) Composition of Muscle Fibres: Skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of individual muscle fibres-Slow twitch muscle fibres and Fast twitch muscles fibres.
iii) Flexibility: Flexibility is referred as range of movement around the joints.
(iv) Phosphogens Stores: To exhibit speed performance muscles need high amount of energy.
(v) Explosive Strength
(vi) Cardio-vascular efficiency

4. Flexibility: It is referred as the range of movements around the joints. It is the ability to execute movements with greater range. Flexibility increases strength, speed and endurance.
Methods of Flexibility Development:
(i) Ballistic Method: The movement is performed with a swing. Before performing such exercises, warm up is essential because there are chances of over-stretching of a joint.
(ii) Static Stretching Method: It involves gradually easing into the stretch position and holding the position for 30 seconds.
(iii) Dynamic Stretching Method: It consists of controlled ‘leg and arm swings’. Start with the movement at half speed for a few repetitions and then gradually increase the speed.
(iv) Proprioceptive Neuro-Muscular Facilitation (PNF) technique: This technique is used by advanced sports person for gaining flexibility in a short period of time.

Friction and its types

The Force acting along two surfaces in contact which opposes the motion of one body over the other is called the force of friction. It is very important in sports. Larger the area of contact between the surfaces, greater is the force of friction.

Types of friction: The friction is of three following types:
(i) Static Friction: The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface but the actual motion has yet not started is called static friction.
(ii) Limiting Friction: Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that comes into play when one body is just at the verge of moving over the surface of another body.
(iii) Kinetic Friction: Kinetic friction is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually moving over the surface of another body.

Advantageous or disadvantageous of friction: Friction is usually called a necessary evil. It means that it is essential in games and sports. Without friction we cannot give a better performance. For example, athletes use spikes and football players use studs to have appropriate friction. Without friction they are unable to run fast. Even gymnasts use lime powder on their palms to perform on horizontal bar, Uneven bar and roman rings.
On the other hand, friction is disadvantageous in some games. In cycling there should not be more friction between road and the tyres of the cycle. If there is more friction there will be more wastage of energy of the rider and leads to damage of equipments.

Biomechanics: Biomechanics is the study of internal and external forces and their effects on living system or athlete.

Fixture: Fixture is a procedure to set a sequence of matches for participating teams (with details of venue, date and time).

Seeding: Seeding is such a method in which a strong team / players are selected to keep them at appropriate place in the fixture so that they do not meet in the earlier round. The organizer must be well aware regarding the previous performance of the selected team/player.

Combination Tournament: Combination Tournament are those tournament in which initial round of tournament are played on particular basis (knock-out or league) and rest of the tournament played on another particular basis (Knock-out/ league)

Bye: A Bye in a fixture means that the team which gets a bye is exempted from playing the first round and enters the second round directly.

There are two types of round robin tournament:
i) Single league tournament: In single league tournament every team plays with every other team once in its pool.
ii) Double league tournament: In double league tournament every team plays with every other team twice in its pool.

Specific sports programmes: Specific sports programmes are for specific cause like awareness, unity health or any social cause. e.g. i) Health run ii) Run for fun iii) Run for specific cause iv) Run for unity v) Annual sports day/National sports day

Intramurals vs Extramurals

Intramurals:
1. Activities within the wall/ compound of the campus
2. Activities are organized only for the members of the schools / colleges / institutions.
3. Provides ample opportunities for every member of the school/ institution to participate in the activities.
4. It may not be played under fixed rules and regulations of the game.
5. Specific skills, techniques strategies may not be required.
6. Objective is recreation or talent hunt
7. Example : Inter -house, Inter- class etc.

Extramurals:
1. Activities outside the Campus
2. Activities are organized for more than two schools / colleges / institutions.
3. Only selected members participate in the extramural activities.
4. Played under fixed rules and regulations of the game.
5. Required specific skills, techniques and tactics.
6. Objective is to enhance performance of individual or team
7. Example : Zonal , District , State etc

Asana: Asana is a physical Yoga posture that is formed to improve physiological functions of the body. Asana are helpful in reducing fatigue, tension and stress. It improves balance, flexibility and strength.

Diabetes: Diabetes is a disease in which the glucose or blood sugar level increases. Lack of secretion of insulin by the gland is the major cause of diabetes. Our liver and endocrine glands play an important role in the regulation of sugar level in the blood.

Hypertension: Increased blood pressure is hypertension. It is a condition where the pressure of blood against the wall of arteries is too high.

Back Pain:
Causes of back pain: Over weight, Lack of exercise, Bad Sitting/ sleeping posture, Lack of Flexibility, Undue Stress on back, Improper warming up and cooling down.
Asanas: Ardhmatsyendrasana, Vakrasana, Salabhasana, Tadasana, Bhujangasana

Asthma: Asthma is a disease associated with respiratory tracks (air ways in the lungs). Asthma is a disease of lungs in which the air-way swells up and produces extra mucus. As a result the airway become blocked or narrowed causing difficulty in breathing. It can be due to genetic factor or allergy.
Causes of Asthma: Allergy, Heredity, Occupational Asthma (caused by inhaling fumes, gases, dust or other potentially harmful substances in work place), Cigarette smoking/passive smoking and polluted air, exposure to animals that cause allergy (pets)
Symptoms: excessive amount of mucus, coughing, heavy breathing, wheezing or whistling, shortness of breath, swelling of air ways, chest tightness, fatigue
Asans Recommended: Sukhasan - Chakrasan – Gomukhasan – Parvatasan – Bhujangasan – Paschimottanasana – Matsyaasan (write procedure, benefit and contradictions of any 2 asanas)
Prevention of Asthma:
1. By using air conditioners.
2. The windows of the air conditioned houses are mainly closed and this reduces the entry of airborne pollens that can cause asthma.
3. Minimizing dust.
4. Minimize dust in the house and at working places. For example by removing carpeting and installing hardwood can reduce the dust.
5. Clean regularly.
6. Keep your home and work place clean. This reduces the dust.
7. Use of mask while cleaning can also prevent asthma.

First- Aid: First- Aid is the immediate and temporary care given to a victim of accident or sudden illness before the arrival of the Doctor.
Aim: The main aim of first aid is to try to save the precious life of wounded person.
Objectives: To preserve life, To prevent the condition from worsening, To alleviate pain and suffering, To promote recovery, To procure early medical aid.

Common Sports injuries

Soft tissue injuries: Contusion, Strain, Sprain, Abrasion, Bruises

Bone Injuries: simple fracture, compound fracture, complicated fracture, communicated fracture, impacted fracture, Greenstick fracture

Joint Injuries: dislocation of lower jaw, dislocation of shoulder joint, dislocation of Hip joint, dislocation of wrist

Causes: Personal causes– Improper warm up–and cool- down, Not following the rules and regulation, Protective clothing and equipment, Improper rest and relaxation, Healing previous injury or inadequate rehabilitation, Lack of conditioning.

Environmental / external causes: Improper ground or poorly maintained facilities, Extreme cold or heat, Inadequate first–aid care, Expectation of spectators, Lack of medical check-up, Improper diet.

Training causes: Without considering individual differences, Lack of proper supervision, Wrong method of training /poor coaching, Lack of Systematic and scientific training, Lack of psychological preparation, Improper load and recovery.

Prevention of Sports Injuries: Pre participation physical examination / medical check-up, Warming up, Proper conditioning, Coaching under expert trainer/ physio/ coach, Proper physical fitness, Balance diet, Coaching according to climatic conditions, Intake of sufficient fluid, Adequate clothing and equipments, Standardized play field/ court, Documentation of injuries, Knowledge of First aid, Protective sport gears, Discontinue to play during the state of fatigue, Scientific knowledge of game.

‘P.R.I.C.E.’: A procedure as a treatment of soft injuries:
i) P-Protection
ii) R-Rest
iii) I-Ice
iv) C-Compression
v) E-Elevation

Greenstick Fracture is a bend or crack in a bone usually found in children.

Laceration is an irregular cut on the skin with a sharp object or sharp edged sports equipment.

Incision is a soft tissue injury. It may occur due to sharp edged object of sports Equipments or spikes etc. Sometimes arteries or veins may be cut. Blood usually comes out freely from incision.

Contusion: A soft tissue injury in which blood vessels in the muscles are broken and internal bleeding may occur on the injured part generally caused by direct hit with blunt object.

Joint Injuries- Dislocation of the joints: in which adjoining bones are displaced from their normal position. Dislocation can be managed by:
a) Rehabilitation - This process is started after the splint or sling is removed. The purpose of designed exercises is to restore normal range of motion and strength amounts the joint.
b) Immobilization: The joint should be immobilized with a sling for several weeks.
c) Reduction - The doctor try to some gentle movements around the affected joint to help the bones back into position.
d) Surgery – After unsuccessful reduction to settle the joint surgery can be used to move dislocated bone back into their correct position.

Fitness Tests

Harvard Step Test/Rockport Test - Harvard Step Test was developed by Brouha in 1943.
Purpose: It measures the cardiovascular fitness or Aerobic fitness by checking the recovery pulse rate.
Equipment required: Stop watch, weighing scale, Track.
Procedure: In this test an athlete stands in front of a box or bench which is 16 inches (female) to 20 inches (male) in height and steps up and down for 5 minutes at a rate of 30 steps/ minute. The pulse rate is counted 1- 1 ½ minutes, 2- 2 ½ minutes and 3 – 3 ½ minutes immediately after the test is administrated.
The athlete’s Physical fitness index score is calculated as:
\[ \text{Physical Fitness Index} = \frac{100 \times \text{Test duration in seconds}}{2 \times \text{Sum of heartbeats in recovery period}} \]
Example: A 15 year old boy completed Harvard step test for a duration of 5 minutes and the no. of heartbeats between 1 to 1.5 minutes was 90, between 2 to 2.5 minutes was 80 and between 3 to 3.5 minutes was 70.
Then fitness index score:
\[ \frac{100 \times 300}{2 \times 240} = 62.5 \]
Advantages of Harvard step test:
1. This test requires nominal/ minimal equipment and self-administered.
2. Requires very less space and cost to administer. Larger group can be tested.

Barrow’s Motor Ability Test

To measure motor fitness. Barrow Three item general motor ability test:

1. Standing broad jump:
a) Purpose of the Test: To measure Power mainly but also agility, speed and strength.
b) Facilities and Equipment required: One 5x12 feet mat marked with take off line and parallel lines 2 inches apart.
Instructions: The subject must crouch before jump. Before the jump is taken the arms are swung. Three trials are given.
Scoring: The final score is the distance in inches from the best jump.

2. Zig Zag Run:
a) Purpose of the Test: To measure agility mainly but also speeds.
b) Facilities and Equipment required: One stop watch & 5 flags or cones.
Instructions: The subject can take start from standing position. After the start running is done in a manner of figure of eight. Like this three circuits are completed.
Scoring: The final score is the time in seconds for three laps.

3. Medicine ball throw/ Six Pound Medicine Ball Put:
Purpose of the Test: To measure mainly strength of arm and shoulder girdle but also to measure power of arm and shoulder girdle coordination speed and balance.
Facilities and Equipment required: A space in the gymnasium hall with 90x25 feet. A 15 feet restraining line marked. One medicine ball weighing six pounds and one measuring tape.
Instructions: The subject must take the position before the restraining line. No overstepping is allowed after restraining line. The medicine ball is put not thrown.
Scoring: The final score is the distance of the best put in nearest foot.

Rikli and Jones Senior Citizen fitness Test

1. Chair Stand Test– for lower body strength:
The participant should sit in the middle of the chair. He should keep his hands on the opposite shoulder crossed at the wrists. The feet should be flat on the floor. His back should be erect. He should repeat sit-up and down for 30 seconds: Total number of complete chair stands is counted. If as senior citizen of age group 60-64 completes > 19 rounds, it is considered above average.

2. Arm Curl Test - for upper body strength:
The participant sits on the chair, holds the weight in hand with a grip. The arm should be in vertically downward position. The upper arm should not move but lower arm should move freely. Curl the arm up through a complete range of motion gradually. Then the arm is lowered through the complete range of motion. Gradually return to the starting position. The score is the total no. of arm curls performed in 30 seconds.

3. Chair Sit and Reach Test – for lower body flexibility:
The participant sits on the edge of the chair (kept against a wall for safety purpose). One foot remain flat on the floor. The other leg should be extended forward with the knee straight, heel on the floor and ankle bent at \( 90^\circ \). Place one hand on the top of the other with tips of the middle fingers even. The participant inhales and then as he exhales, reaches forward towards the toes by bending at the hip. His back should be straight and head up. Avoid any jerk or bounce. Keep the knee straight and hold the reach for 2 seconds. If the finger tip touch the toes score is zero. If they don’t touch, measure the distance (in inches) between the fingers and the toes(negative score). For a senior citizen of age group 60-64, > -4 score is considered average.

4. Back Scratch Test – for upper body flexibility:
In a standing position, Keep one hand behind the head and back over the shoulder and reach as far as possible down middle of your back. Your palm should touch your body and the fingers should be downwards. Then carry your other arm behind your back-facing outward, and fingers upward and reach up as far as possible trying to touch or overlap the middle fingers of both hands. If the fingertips touch, score is zero. If they do not touch, measure the distance (in inches) between the fingertips (negative score). If they overlap, positive score. For a senior citizen of age group 60-64, score of 6.5 to 0 is average score.

5. Eight Foot up and Go Test – for Agility:
Purpose: This test helps to evaluate speed, agility and dynamic balance.
Equipment required: A chair about 44 inch high, a stop watch, cone, marker, measuring tape, and an area without any hindrance.
Procedure: Keep a chair next to the wall and place the cone / marker 8 feet away in front of the chair. The participant is initially completely seated, hands resting on the knees and feet. Feet on the ground. On the command go stop watch is switched on and the participant starts walking (no running at all) as quickly as possible towards the cone, turns around and returns to the chair to sit down. Time is noted as he sit down on the chair. Two trials are given per participants.
If a senior citizen of age group 60-64 takes 3.8 to 5.6 seconds, it is average score.

6. Six minute Walk Test – for Aerobic Endurance:
Efforts are made to walk maximum distance as quickly as possible in 6 minutes. If a senior citizen of age group 60-64 covers > 735 yards, his score is above average.