Class 9 Social Science Pastoralists in the Modern World Exam Notes

Class 9 Social Science Pastoralists in the Modern World Exam Notes. Please refer to the examination notes which you can use for preparing and revising for exams. These notes will help you to revise the concepts quickly and get good marks.

These CBSE Class 9 Social Science exam notes on Pastoralists in the Modern World cover pastoral nomadism and its origin, the forms of pastoralism (nomadic pastoralism, herders to farmers and transhumance), the major characteristics of pastoral nomads, the seasonal movements of pastoral groups in the mountains, plateaus and deserts of India, the impact of colonialism and modern states, and pastoralism in Africa, with the chapter exercises and answer key.

PASTORAL NOMADISM

Pastoral nomadism is a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals. The word pastoral refers to sheep herding. It is adapted to dry climates where planting crops is impossible. Pastoral nomads live primarily in the large belt of arid and semi-arid land that includes North Africa, the Middle East and parts of Central Asia. The Bedouins of Saudi Arabia and North Africa and the Maasai of East Africa are examples of nomadic groups. Only about 15 million people are pastoral nomads, but they sparsely occupy about 20 per cent of the earth's land area.

Origin

Most researchers and historians believe that pastoralism is derived directly from hunting and food gathering. Hunters of wild goats and sheep already had knowledge of herd dynamics and the ecological needs of the herd animals, so they adopted nomadic herding as their occupation. Some researchers, however, believe that it was the pressure of population on land that forced people to adopt this occupation.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF PASTORALISM

1. Nomadic pastoralism
(i) Under this, people keep moving along with their animals in search of grazing areas.
(ii) This activity is of the subsistence type and is more common in areas of dry climate not suitable for crop farming, such as the Arabian desert and parts of the Sahara.
(iii) Because a majority of the members of the group are directly involved in herd management in some way, the household moves with these seasonal migrations.

Herders to farmers

Some African tribes, such as the Maasai, Fulani and Bushmen, are by tradition herders. The people used to migrate each season with their herds of cattle across the savannas, but many can no longer find enough grazing land. Some have had to settle down and turn to planting and farming crops, often on poor, infertile land. Many of these tribespeople know little about growing crops. As most of them are failing to make a living off the land, they have no choice but to move to towns, where they will almost certainly have to live in slum conditions and try to survive on the streets. Their age-old way of life is changing quickly.

Transhumance

Under transhumance, members of the group move the herd seasonally from one area to another, often between higher and lower pastures. The rest of the group are able to stay in the same location, which results in longer-standing housing. Mobility across altitudes, and the resulting differences in precipitation, are important. In East Africa, different animals are taken to different regions through the year to match the seasonal patterns of precipitation.

This pattern is also followed in northern India, where Gujjars move from the hilly areas to the plains in winter.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PASTORAL NOMADISM

1. In contrast to other subsistence farmers, pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather than crops for survival.
2. The animals provide milk, and their skins and hair are used for clothing and tents.
3. Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain rather than meat.
4. The animals are commonly not slaughtered, although dead ones may be consumed. The size of the herd is both an important measure of power and prestige, and the main security during adverse environmental conditions.
5. Most nomadic people follow the barter system, though some also use money. They exchange animals for food or grains.
6. Often, part of the nomadic group, perhaps the women and children, may plant crops at a fixed location while the rest of the group wanders with the herd.
7. Nomads might hire workers to practise sedentary agriculture in return for grain and protection. Other nomads might sow grain in recently flooded areas and return later in the year to harvest the crop.
8. Nomads select the type and number of animals for the herd according to local cultural and physical characteristics. The choice depends on the relative prestige of animals and the ability of a species to adapt to a particular climate and vegetation. The camel is most frequently desired in North Africa and the Middle East, followed by sheep and goats. In Central Asia, the horse is particularly important.

MOVEMENTS OF PASTORAL NOMADS

A. In the mountains

(i) The Gujjar Bakarwals: Gujjar Bakarwals migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in the 19th century in search of pastures for their animals. Gradually, over the decades, they established themselves in the area and moved annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In winter, when the high mountains were covered with snow and there was a lack of pastures at high altitude, they moved to the low hills of the Shiwalik. The dry scrub forests here provided pastures for their herds. By the end of April they began their northern march to their summer grazing grounds. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered the valley of Kashmir. With the onset of summer, the snow melted and the mountainsides became lush green. By the end of September, the Bakarwals started their backward journey.

(ii) The Gaddi shepherds: Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh spent their winter in the low hills of the Shiwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher mountain meadows. By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. Then they descended with their flocks to their winter grazing grounds in the Shiwalik hills. Next April, they again began their march with their goats and sheep to the summer meadows.

(iii) Movement in Garhwal and Kumaon: The Gujjar cattle herders come down to the dry forests of the bhabar in winter, and go up to the high meadows, the bugyals, in summer. Many of them were originally from Jammu and came to the hills of Uttar Pradesh in the nineteenth century in search of good pastures.

(iv) Other pastoral nomads: Cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures is typical of many pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris. All of them had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of the available pastures in different places.

B. On the plateaus, plains and deserts

(i) The Dhangars: The Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. They stayed on the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. Due to low rainfall, only dry crops could be grown there. In the monsoon these regions became a vast grazing ground for Dhangar flocks. By October the Dhangars harvested their dry crops. During this season there was a shortage of grazing ground, so the Dhangars moved towards the west. After about a month, they reached the Konkan. In this region the locals welcomed them, as the flocks of Dhangars provided manure to the fields and fed on the stubble. With the onset of the monsoon, the Dhangars, after collecting supplies of rice and other food grains, left the Konkan and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau.

(ii) The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas: In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau was covered with grass and inhabited by cattle, goat and sheep herders. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. They lived near the woods, cultivated small patches of land, engaged in a variety of petty trades and took care of their herds. The seasonal rhythm of their movement was decided by the alternation of the monsoon and the dry season. In the dry season they moved to the coastal tracts, and left when the rains came.

(iii) The Raikas: The Raikas were the nomads of Rajasthan. They were divided into two groups. One group, known as the Maru Raikas, herded camels, and another group reared sheep and goats. Cultivation and pastoralism were their primary activities. During the monsoon they stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pastures and water.

C. How pastoral groups sustained themselves

The pastoral groups sustained their way of life by careful consideration of a number of factors:
(i) Climatic factors: They had to judge the climatic conditions of the regions to which they wanted to move, how long the herds could stay in one area, and where they could find water and pasture.
(ii) Timing: They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that they could move through different territories.
(iii) Relationship with farmers: They had to set up a relationship with farmers so that herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil.
(iv) Different activities: They combined a range of activities, such as cultivation, trade and herding, to make their living.

IMPACT OF COLONIALISM AND MODERN STATES ON PASTORALISM

The process of colonisation started in the 16th century. During the earlier phase of colonialism, Spain, Portugal, England, France and Holland established their colonies in America, Asia and Africa. The second stage of imperialism began in the 8th decade of the 19th century. During this stage, a race started among the European countries to capture more and more colonies outside Europe. Apart from England and France, new countries such as Germany, Belgium, Russia, Japan and America also became active contenders in this race. The spread of colonialism and imperialism had a deep impact on pastoralism.

1. After colonisation, their mobility was restricted. People had a limited area to move in.
2. The new rulers encouraged settlement, which had an adverse impact on the herds and the people.
3. The colonies were to be used as a source of raw material, so the new rulers encouraged commercial agriculture. The pastures were converted into big farms.
4. To exploit the natural resources of their colonies, the European countries started building roads and railway tracks. This resulted in the loss of pastures.
5. With the invention of modern technology, pastoral nomadism became non-existent in many parts of the world.
6. The introduction of the state farming system had an adverse impact on pastoral people.
7. Exploitation of oil resources, and the difficulties posed to nomads by the multiplicity of political boundaries, have also reduced the importance of this mode of livelihood.
8. Even today, most governments of countries such as China, Egypt, Israel and Saudi Arabia are forcing people to give up pastoral nomadism so that pasture can be used for other purposes.
9. Mining and petroleum industries have also limited their movement, as these industries operate in dry lands.
10. Many nomads are being encouraged to try sedentary agriculture or to work for the mining or petroleum industries.

Researchers still believe that the pastoralist way of life is an efficient system, one of the few ways of supporting a population in a difficult environment, and a sustainable approach to land use. But due to modernisation, globalisation and privatisation, pastoral nomadism will be confined to areas that cannot be irrigated or that lack valuable raw materials.

PASTORALISM IN AFRICA

Over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include communities like the Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them now live in semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts, where rain-fed agriculture is difficult. They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys, and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport, others combine pastoral activity with agriculture, and still others do a variety of odd jobs to supplement their meagre and uncertain earnings from pastoralism.

A. Where have the grazing lands gone?

Before the arrival of the colonial rulers, Maasailand spread over a vast area from northern Kenya to the steppes of northern Tanzania. This gradually shrank for the following reasons:
(i) The colonial powers were hungry for possessions in Africa. Once they reached Africa, they began to cut it up among different colonies.
(ii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement. The Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania.
(iii) The colonial governments promoted cultivation. Local peasant communities began to take control over pastoral lands, and pastoral lands further fell.
(iv) Large areas of land were turned into game reserves. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves; they could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds there. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds.
(v) The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land within which the Maasai were confined. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably led to a deterioration in the quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply, and feeding the cattle became a persistent problem.

B. The borders are closed

(i) From the late nineteenth century, the colonial government began imposing various restrictions on the mobility of pastoralists. Special permits were issued, and people were not allowed to move out with their stock without them. It was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment.
(ii) Pastoralists were also not allowed to enter markets in white areas. In many regions, they were prohibited from taking part in any form of trade. So they became fully dependent on their stock.
(iii) When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movement, grazing lands came to be used continuously, and the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and a deterioration of animal stock.
(iv) Most of the nomads were now forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts.

C. When pastures dry

(i) Traditionally, pastoralists are nomadic; they move from place to place. This nomadism allows them to survive bad times and avoid crises.
(ii) From the colonial period, the Maasai were bound to a fixed area and prohibited from moving in search of pastures. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts. As they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in drought years.
(iii) As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effects of droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to a steady decline in the animal stock of the pastoralists.

D. Not all were equally affected

(i) In pre-colonial times, Maasai society was divided into two social categories: elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide the affairs of the community and settle disputes. The warriors were younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids. Young men came to be recognised as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and taking part in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders.
(ii) After the arrival of the British, there was a change in the political set-up of the tribes. The British started appointing chiefs of different sub-groups and imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. With the passage of time, these chiefs started accumulating wealth, became very rich and started lending money to poor people. Many of these chiefs started living in towns and got involved in other economic activities. The life of the poor pastoralists was miserable. They did not have resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famine they lost nearly everything, and most of them started working as labourers.
(iii) The social changes in Maasai society occurred at two levels. First, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Second, a new distinction between the wealthy and the poor pastoralists developed.

GLOSSARY

1. Nomads: People who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living.
2. Bhabar: A dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaon.
3. Bugyal: Vast meadows in the high mountains.
4. Kharif: The autumn crop, usually harvested between September and October.
5. Rabi: The spring crop, usually harvested after March.
6. Stubble: Lower ends of grain stalks left in the ground after harvesting.
7. Pasture: A grass or other plants grown for feeding or grazing animals, as well as land used for grazing.
8. Maasai: A pastoralist community of Africa.
9. Criminal Tribes Act: In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes.
10. Customary rights: Rights that people are used to by custom and tradition.

EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Why did pastoral communities move from one place to another?

Answer: Pastoral communities moved in search of pastures and water for their animals. Grazing land dried up in some seasons and was rich in others, so the herds had to move with the changing seasons.

Teacher's Note:
a) Pasture and water decide where a herd can survive in a season.
b) Movement was a survival strategy, not a choice made for pleasure.

Q.2 Name three pastoral communities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. What were their occupations?

Answer: Three pastoral communities were the Gollas, the Kurumas and the Kurubas. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats, sold woven blankets, cultivated small patches of land and took up petty trades.

Teacher's Note:
a) Each community had its own animal: cattle for the Gollas, sheep and goats for the Kurumas and Kurubas.
b) Mixing herding with cultivation and trade was common among these groups.

Q.3 Who were the Banjaras ? Where are they found ? What were their occupation ?

Answer: The Banjaras were mobile groups of graziers and carriers who moved across the plateaus and plains of the Deccan and north India. They are found in parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and north India. Their main occupation was transporting grain and other goods on pack animals such as bullocks, and selling them to towns and army camps, while also herding animals.

Teacher's Note:
a) The Banjaras were both traders and pastoralists, which made them very mobile.
b) Their bullock caravans carried grain across regions where markets were scattered.

Q.4 Where are the Raikas to be found ? Why are they both cultivators and pastoralists ?

Answer: The Raikas are found in Rajasthan. They are both cultivators and pastoralists because they grow crops and stay in their home villages during the monsoon, when pasture is available, and then move out with their herds when the grazing grounds dry up after the harvest.

Teacher's Note:
a) Cultivation and herding were their primary activities, so both were needed for a livelihood.
b) Their rhythm of work followed the monsoon and the dry season.

Q.5 How did the life of the pastoalists change under colonial rule ?

Answer: Under colonial rule, the mobility of pastoralists was restricted and their grazing lands were taken for farms, roads, railways and game reserves. Forest laws and permit systems limited their movement, and many were forced to settle, take up cultivation or work as labourers.

Teacher's Note:
a) Loss of pasture was the main cause of hardship.
b) Many pastoralists were pushed into smaller areas that were prone to drought.

Q.6 What were the basic provisions of the various Forest Act passed during this time ?

Answer: The Forest Acts divided forests into reserved forests and protected forests. In reserved forests, people were not allowed to graze animals, cut wood or collect forest produce, and in protected forests their rights were limited and regulated by the government. The Acts also brought most forest land under government control and reduced the customary rights of pastoralists.

Teacher's Note:
a) The aim was to protect timber for the state, not to meet the needs of herders.
b) Customary rights, which had been used for generations, were taken away.

Q.7 What does the word Massai mean ? Where are they found ?

Answer: Massai is the name of a pastoralist community of Africa. They are found in Kenya and northern Tanzania.

Teacher's Note:
a) Maasai is the spelling used in most sources.
b) Their traditional grazing lands once stretched from northern Kenya to northern Tanzania.

Q.8 What changes occurred in Massai society during colonial rule ?

Answer: The British appointed chiefs of different sub-groups, who became wealthy and lent money to poor people. The traditional difference between elders and warriors was disturbed, and a new distinction between wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

Teacher's Note:
a) Chiefs who grew rich often moved to towns and took up other businesses.
b) The poor lost their herds in bad times and had to work as labourers.

Q.9 How did the poor Massai pastoralists survive during war and famines ?

Answer: The poor Maasai had no resources to get through bad times. In war and famine they lost nearly everything, and most of them survived by working as labourers for others.

Teacher's Note:
a) Without a herd to fall back on, a bad year could destroy a family.
b) Wage labour became their main means of survival.

Q.10 How have pastoralists adopted to changing times ?

Answer: Pastoralists have adapted by taking up settled farming, working in mining and petroleum industries, doing trade and transport, or taking up a variety of odd jobs. Some combine pastoral activity with agriculture.

Teacher's Note:
a) Many pastoralists now earn from more than one source.
b) Some still keep herds while farming a small plot.

Q.11 What is pasture ?

Answer: Pasture is a grass or other plant grown for feeding or grazing animals, and also the land used for grazing.

Teacher's Note:
a) Pastures can be natural grasslands or meadows.
b) The quality of pasture falls when animals graze the same land for too long.

Q.12 What is transhumance ?

Answer: Transhumance is the seasonal movement of herds between higher and lower pastures, for example between summer and winter grazing grounds, while the rest of the group stays in the same place.

Teacher's Note:
a) Only the herd moves in transhumance, unlike full nomadism.
b) The Gujjars of northern India follow this pattern.

Q.13 Who were nomads ? Name any four animals which are reared by them.

Answer: Nomads are people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living. Four animals reared by them are sheep, goats, camels and cattle (horses, donkeys and yaks are also reared by some groups).

Teacher's Note:
a) The animals reared depend on the climate and the vegetation of the area.
b) Camels are preferred in North Africa and the Middle East, and horses in Central Asia.

Q.14 What is Kafila ?

Answer: A kafila is a caravan, which is a group of travellers, traders and animals moving together over long distances.

Teacher's Note:
a) Travelling in a kafila gave safety against robbers and harsh deserts.
b) The word is commonly used for trading caravans in Asia and Africa.

Q.15 Distinguish between 'Reserved' and 'Protected' Forests.

Answer: Reserved forests were the most strictly controlled forests, where people could not graze animals, collect produce or cut wood without permission. In protected forests, the government allowed some rights to local people, but these rights could be regulated or withdrawn by the government.

Teacher's Note:
a) Reserved forests had the strongest restrictions on local use.
b) Rights in protected forests were more limited than customary rights, and the government could change them at any time.

B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 What are the similarities between the lifestyles of Gujar Bakarwals of Jammu & Kashmir and Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh ?

Answer:
1. Both groups spent the winter in the low hills of the Shiwalik range, where the dry scrub forests gave pasture to their herds.
2. Both moved north in April to high summer pastures, the Gujjar Bakarwals to Kashmir and the Gaddis to Lahul and Spiti and the high meadows.
3. Both returned to their winter grounds by late September or October as the snow came back.
4. Both reared sheep and goats and depended on the seasonal rhythm of the mountain pastures.

Teacher's Note:
a) The shared pattern shows how seasonal snow controls the movement of mountain herders.
b) The Gaddis also farmed a winter crop in Lahul and Spiti on their return journey.

Q.2 Who were Dhangars ? What were their occupations ? Why were they continuously on the move ?

Answer:
1. The Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra.
2. Their occupations were herding flocks, growing dry crops on the plateau, and trade in grain and other goods.
3. They were on the move because the semi-arid plateau had grazing only during the monsoon. After the harvest in October, the grazing ground was short, so they moved west to the Konkan.
4. In the Konkan, their flocks manured the fields and fed on the stubble, and the farmers welcomed them. With the monsoon they returned to the plateau.

Teacher's Note:
a) Grazing on the plateau depended entirely on the monsoon rains.
b) The exchange with Konkan farmers was a mutual arrangement, with manure given for grazing.

Q.3 What factors had to be kept in mind by the pastoralists in order to survive ?

Answer:
1. Climatic conditions of the regions to which they moved, including how long the herds could stay in one place.
2. Water and pasture availability along the route.
3. The timing of movement, so that they could pass through different territories safely.
4. A good relationship with farmers, so that herds could graze in harvested fields.
5. Combining cultivation, trade and herding to make a living.

Teacher's Note:
a) Pastoralists had to read the climate as carefully as farmers read the weather.
b) A single bad decision about timing could cost a whole herd.
c) Relations with farmers were built on mutual benefit.

Q.4 How did various laws passed by the British affect the Indian Pastoralists ?

Answer:
1. The Forest Acts restricted pastoralists from grazing their animals, cutting wood and collecting forest produce in many forests.
2. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 classified many pastoral communities as criminal tribes, which brought them under suspicion and control.
3. Customary rights of pastoralists over pastures and forests were reduced, so their herds had less land to graze.
4. Restrictions on movement made it harder to take herds to distant pastures in time.

Teacher's Note:
a) The laws aimed at control of land and revenue, not at the welfare of herders.
b) The Criminal Tribes Act stigmatised whole communities regardless of their conduct.

Q.5 How did the Pastoralists cope with these changes ?

Answer:
1. They changed their routes and timings to use whatever pastures were still open.
2. They combined herding with cultivation, trade and transport, so that one source of income did not fail when grazing was short.
3. Many took up settled farming, and some worked as labourers in towns, mines or petroleum industries.
4. Some reduced the size of their herds, and others sold animals to meet their needs.

Teacher's Note:
a) Flexibility was the main survival strategy.
b) The change was often painful, since many lost their herds and their independence.

Q.6 Name four pastoral communities of Africa. Where are they to be found ? What are their occupations ?

Answer:
1. Four pastoral communities of Africa are the Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai and Somali (Boran and Turkana are also pastoral).
2. They are found in semi-arid grasslands and arid deserts, from North Africa to East Africa.
3. Their occupations are raising cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys, and selling milk, meat, animal skin and wool.
4. Some also earn through trade and transport, and others combine herding with agriculture.

Teacher's Note:
a) Arid and semi-arid land is unsuitable for rain-fed crops, which is why herding became the main activity.
b) Milk and wool were sold in local markets to earn cash.

Q.7 What restrictions were imposed by the colonial government on the African Pastoralists ?

Answer:
1. Pastoralists were required to have special permits to move out with their stock, and these were difficult to get.
2. They were not allowed to enter markets in white areas.
3. In many regions they were prohibited from taking part in any form of trade.
4. They could not enter game reserves to hunt or graze their herds.

Teacher's Note:
a) Restricting movement also cut off access to the best pastures.
b) Denying trade made the pastoralists fully dependent on their stock.

Q.8 Why did the cattle stock of the Massai's decrease under colonial rule ?

Answer:
1. The best grazing lands were taken for white settlement, cultivation and game reserves.
2. The Maasai were confined to a small area, where continuous grazing led to poor pastures and a shortage of fodder.
3. They were not allowed to move in search of pasture during droughts, so large numbers of cattle died of starvation and disease.
4. Repeated bad years steadily reduced the animal stock.

Teacher's Note:
a) Confinement turned an ordinary drought into a disaster.
b) Shrinking pastures and poor fodder weakened the herds even in good years.

Q.9 Describe the social organisation of the Massai's in the pre-colonial times.

Answer:
1. Maasai society was divided into two social categories: elders and warriors.
2. The elders formed the ruling group. They met in periodic councils to take decisions for the community and to settle disputes.
3. The warriors were younger men who protected the tribe, defended the community and organised cattle raids.
4. A young man became a warrior by proving his bravery through cattle raids and wars, and warriors remained under the authority of the elders.

Teacher's Note:
a) The distinction between elders and warriors was based on age.
b) Raiding cattle from other groups was a mark of manhood, not simply theft.

Q.10 How did the Massai's chiefs appointed by the British benefit economically ?

Answer:
1. The chiefs accumulated wealth through their position under the British.
2. They became rich and started lending money to poor pastoralists.
3. Many of them moved to towns and took part in other economic activities.

Teacher's Note:
a) Their official position gave them access to money and influence.
b) Lending to the poor made them creditors, while the poor fell into debt.

Q.11 What was the impact of colonial rule over the elders and warriors of Massai community ?

Answer:
1. The traditional difference between elders and warriors, based on age, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely.
2. The British restricted raiding and warfare, which limited the traditional role of the warriors.
3. The power of the British-appointed chiefs weakened the authority of the old councils of elders.
4. A new distinction between wealthy and poor pastoralists developed within the community.

Teacher's Note:
a) Wealth began to matter more than age in deciding social position.
b) The warriors lost their main path to prestige when raiding was banned.

Q.12 Who were Raikas ? Write any three features of their life style.

Answer:
1. The Raikas were nomads of Rajasthan who were divided into two groups, the Maru Raikas who herded camels, and others who reared sheep and goats.
2. They combined cultivation and pastoralism, and during the monsoon they stayed in their home villages where pasture was available.
3. By October, when the grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pastures and water.

Teacher's Note:
a) The camel was the main animal of the Maru Raikas.
b) Their movements followed the monsoon and the dry season.

Q.13 Explain the impact of Forest Acts on the Nomads or Pastoralists.

Answer:
1. The Forest Acts divided forests into reserved and protected categories and brought them under government control.
2. Pastoralists lost access to many forests where they had grazed their animals and collected fodder and wood for generations.
3. Their customary rights were curtailed, so they had to seek permission or stop using these lands.
4. Herds had less land to graze, and the pressure on remaining pastures increased, which affected the health of the animals.

Teacher's Note:
a) The Forest Acts changed the legal status of land that had been used freely for centuries.
b) Loss of fodder hurt the herds even where grazing was still allowed.

Q.14 Explain the movements of Gujjar, Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir.

Answer:
1. The Gujjar Bakarwals migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in the 19th century in search of pastures.
2. In winter, when the high mountains were under snow, they moved to the low hills of the Shiwalik range, where the dry scrub forests gave pasture to their herds.
3. By the end of April, they began their northern march and crossed the Pir Panjal passes into the valley of Kashmir.
4. With the summer, the snow melted and the mountainsides turned green, and by the end of September they began the return journey to the Shiwalik hills.

Teacher's Note:
a) The movement is a yearly cycle that follows the snowline.
b) The Pir Panjal passes were the main route between the plains and the Kashmir valley.

Q.15 Explain the annual cycle of seasonal movement of Gaddis.

Answer:
1. In winter, the Gaddi shepherds stayed in the low hills of the Shiwalik range and grazed their flocks in the scrub forests.
2. By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti, and when the high passes were clear, many moved on to higher mountain meadows.
3. By September they began the return movement and stopped in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop.
4. They then descended with their flocks to the Shiwalik hills, and the cycle began again the next April.

Teacher's Note:
a) The cycle combined herding with farming in two different places.
b) The return stop in Lahul and Spiti allowed them to harvest and sow before the winter.

C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Explain the major characteristics of pastoral Nomadism.

Answer:
1. Pastoral nomads depend mainly on animals rather than crops. Their animals give milk, and their skins and hair are used for clothing and tents.
2. They rarely slaughter the animals. The size of the herd is a measure of power and prestige, and it is the main security in bad times.
3. Most nomads follow a barter system, exchanging animals for food and grain, though some also use money.
4. Part of the group, often the women and children, may plant crops at a fixed location while the rest move with the herd.
5. Nomads select the animals according to local conditions. The camel is most desired in North Africa and the Middle East, and the horse is important in Central Asia.
6. They may hire workers for farming, or sow grain in flooded areas and return later to harvest it.

Teacher's Note:
a) Dependence on animals rather than crops is the defining feature.
b) Herd size was both wealth and insurance against drought.
c) Choice of animals reflects the land each group lives in.

Q.2 Explain the impact of droughts on the life of pastoralists.

Answer:
1. In a drought, the pastures and water sources dry up, and the herds lose their food and water.
2. Traditionally, pastoralists moved to other areas to escape drought. Under colonial rule, when they were confined to fixed areas, they could not move, and large numbers of animals died of starvation and disease.
3. Repeated droughts led to a steady decline in the animal stock, so the herds that were the basis of their livelihood shrank.
4. Pastoralists who lost their herds had no reserve to fall back on. Many were forced to work as labourers or move to towns.

Teacher's Note:
a) Mobility was the traditional protection against drought.
b) Once a herd was lost, rebuilding it was very difficult.

Q.3 How did the pastoralists cope with the changes brought by colonial rule ? Explain.

Answer:
1. Pastoralists changed their routes and timings to use the pastures still open to them, even when movement was restricted.
2. Many took up cultivation, either alone or along with herding, to reduce dependence on their animals.
3. Some combined herding with trade and transport, using pack animals to carry goods to markets.
4. Those who lost their herds worked as labourers in mines, plantations and towns, or took up odd jobs.
5. Some communities resisted restrictions and continued to move with their herds, despite permits and penalties.

Teacher's Note:
a) Diversifying income was the main strategy of survival.
b) Not all groups coped equally; the poor were hit hardest.
c) Adaptation often meant a loss of independence and a shift to wage work.

Q.4 Give reason to explain why the Massai community lost their grazing lands.

Answer:
1. The colonial powers wanted possessions in Africa, and they began dividing and taking over the land in different colonies.
2. The best grazing lands were given to white settlers, and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania.
3. The colonial governments promoted cultivation, and local peasant communities took control of pastoral lands.
4. Large areas were turned into game reserves, where pastoralists could not hunt or graze their herds, including lands that had long been used by Maasai herds.

Teacher's Note:
a) Land was taken for farms, reserves and settlement, each reducing the area the herds could use.
b) Game reserves were especially damaging because they covered traditional grazing grounds.

Q.5 Explain the life of bushman of the Kalahari.

Answer:
1. The Bushmen, or San, are the indigenous people of the Kalahari desert in southern Africa, in parts of Botswana, Namibia and South Africa.
2. Traditionally they lived in small bands and moved from place to place to follow water, game and wild plants.
3. They hunted small animals with bows and arrows and gathered roots, berries, nuts and other wild food, which gave them a detailed knowledge of the desert.
4. Their way of life was shaped by the dry environment, and in recent times many have been pushed into settled life, wage labour or herding.

Teacher's Note:
a) The notes list Bushmen among herders by tradition, but the San of the Kalahari were mainly hunter-gatherers.
b) Knowledge of water sources in the desert was central to their survival.
c) Loss of land and restrictions on hunting have forced many to change their way of life.

D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Where are Gujjar Cattle herders originally from ?
(A) Jammu
(B) Himachal Pradesh
(C) Rajasthan
(D) Goa

Answer: (A) Jammu

1. Many Gujjar cattle herders were originally from Jammu.
2. They came to the hills of Uttar Pradesh in the nineteenth century in search of good pastures.

Teacher's Note:
a) The Gujjars spread from Jammu to Garhwal and Kumaon.

Q.2 Where do Gujjars live in summer ?
(A) Buggals
(B) Bhabar
(C) Pasture
(D) Meadows

Answer: (D) Meadows

1. In summer, the Gujjars move up to the high meadows, called bugyals, in the mountains.
2. Bhabar is the dry forest below the foothills, where they go in winter, so option (B) is not the summer location. The key prints option (B) for this question, which is wrong.

Teacher's Note:
a) Buggals and bugyals are the same high meadows; the printed option (A) is the local name for the same place.
b) Bhabar is the winter location, which is the common confusion.

Q.3 Where do the Bedounis Communtiy Found ?
(A) Jammu
(B) Indonesia
(C) Africa
(D) Jawa

Answer: (C) Africa

1. The Bedouins live in the arid and semi-arid lands of North Africa and the Middle East, including Saudi Arabia.
2. Among the options, Africa is the continent where they are found.

Teacher's Note:
a) Bedouins are mainly associated with the Arabian desert and North Africa.
b) Jammu, Indonesia and Java are not in this region.

Q.4 Which crop is usually harvested after March -
(A) Kharif
(B) Rabi
(C) Zaid
(D) Stubble

Answer: (B) Rabi

1. The Rabi crop is the spring crop, which is harvested after March.
2. Kharif is harvested in September and October, and stubble is the leftover stalk, not a crop.

Teacher's Note:
a) Rabi is sown in winter and harvested in spring.
b) Zaid is a summer crop and is not the answer here.

Q.5 Where are the Raikas to be found ?
(A) Karnataka
(B) Tamil Nadu
(C) Delhi
(D) Desert of Rajasthan

Answer: (D) Desert of Rajasthan

1. The Raikas were the nomads of Rajasthan.
2. They are associated with the desert region of Rajasthan, where they herded camels, sheep and goats.

Teacher's Note:
a) Maru Raikas, the camel herders, are named after the desert, which is Maru in Rajasthani.
b) Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the homes of other pastoral communities such as the Gollas and Kurumas.

Q.6 When was Massailand divided between British Kenya & German Tangayika ?
(A) 1883
(B) 1885
(C) 1887
(D) 1889

Answer: (B) 1885

1. Maasailand was divided between British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885, as the colonial powers carved up the region.
2. This division cut the traditional grazing area of the Maasai.

Teacher's Note:
a) Europeans drew boundaries without regard to the movements of pastoral people.
b) The division split the Maasai between two colonies.

Q.7 It is a type of agriculture under which crops are grown and consumed by the farmer's family -
(A) Primary agriculture
(B) Subsistence agriculture
(C) Secondary agriculture
(D) None of these

Answer: (B) Subsistence agriculture

1. Subsistence agriculture grows crops mainly to feed the farmer's own family.
2. Primary agriculture is a general term for the farming sector, and secondary agriculture is not a term for growing crops.

Teacher's Note:
a) Pastoral nomads practise subsistence agriculture in this sense.
b) Surplus, if any, is sold, which is different from pure subsistence.

Q.8 It is a type of agriculture under which crops are grown to satisfy the needs of local community -
(A) Primary agriculture
(B) Subsistence agriculture
(C) Secondary agriculture
(D) None of these

Answer: (B) Subsistence agriculture

1. Crops grown to meet the needs of the local community are subsistence crops.
2. Secondary agriculture is not a type of crop farming, so option (C) given in the key is wrong.

Teacher's Note:
a) The key prints option (C) for this question, which is wrong; the correct option is (B).
b) Q.7 and Q.8 describe the same type of farming in two ways.

Q.9 When did the colonical government in India pass the criminal Tribes Act ?
(A) 1871
(B) 1872
(C) 1873
(D) 1874

Answer: (A) 1871

1. The colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871.
2. The Act classified many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists as criminal tribes.

Teacher's Note:
a) The year 1871 is the one given in the glossary of these notes.
b) Later years in the options are not correct for this Act.

Q.10 Which of the following pastoralist community of western India ?
(A) Monpas
(B) Gollas
(C) Raikas
(D) Dhangars

Answer: (D) Dhangars

1. The Dhangars were a pastoral community of western India, specifically Maharashtra.
2. Monpas are from Arunachal Pradesh, Gollas from Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and Raikas from Rajasthan.

Teacher's Note:
a) Dhangars moved between the Deccan plateau and the Konkan coast.
b) Each of the other options belongs to a different region of India.

ANSWER KEY

Q.No: 1 - A, 2 - B, 3 - C, 4 - B, 5 - D, 6 - B, 7 - B, 8 - C, 9 - A, 10 - D

The key printed above is correct for questions 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10. For question 2 the correct answer is (D) Meadows, and for question 8 the correct answer is (B) Subsistence agriculture; the printed key shows B and C for these.