Class 12 Biology Study Guide: CBSE Class 12 Biology Bio Technology Principles and Processes Key Points
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BIO TECHNOLOGY PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES
Chapter 11: Biotechnology – Principles and Processes (Key Points)
| S.No | Term | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | rDNA | Recombinant DNA |
| 2 | Gene cloning | DNA technology used to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other gene to obtain enough material for further study |
| 3 | Gene transfer | Incorporation of new DNA into an organism's cells, usually by a vector such as a modified virus. Used in gene therapy. See also: mutation, gene therapy, vector |
| 4 | Genetic engineering | Altering the genetic material of cells or organisms to enable them to make new substances or perform new functions |
| 5 | ORI | The specific sequence of bases in a DNA which initiates replication |
| 6 | Restriction enzymes | Molecular scissors capable of cutting DNA at specific sites. These are enzymes present in bacteria which prevent the multiplication of bacteriophages in their cells |
| 7 | Plasmid | Autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal circular DNA molecules, distinct from the normal bacterial genome and non-essential for cell survival under non-selective conditions. Some plasmids are capable of integrating into the host genome. A number of artificially constructed plasmids are used as cloning vectors |
| 8 | Cloning vectors | Vectors that introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where the DNA can be reproduced in large quantities. Examples are plasmids, cosmids and yeast artificial chromosomes |
| 9 | Endonuclease | Protein that recognises specific, short nucleotide sequences and cuts DNA at those sites within the molecule |
| 10 | Nucleases | Enzymes that are specific to nucleic acids |
| 11 | Exonucleases | Enzymes that cleave nucleotides sequentially from the free ends of a linear nucleic acid substrate |
| 12 | Palindromic sequences | The sequence of base pairs that reads the same on both the strands when read in the same orientation (i.e. 5′ to 3′ in both the strands) |
| 13 | Gel electrophoresis | A method of separating large molecules (such as DNA fragments or proteins) from a mixture of similar molecules. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the mixture, and each kind of molecule travels through the medium at a different rate, depending on its electrical charge and size. Agarose and acrylamide gels are the media commonly used for electrophoresis of proteins and nucleic acids |
| 14 | Elution | The extraction of separated fragments of DNA from the electrophoresis gel |
| 15 | Autoradiography | A technique that uses X-ray film to visualise radioactively labelled molecules or fragments of molecules; used in analysing the length and number of DNA fragments after they are separated by gel electrophoresis |
| 16 | Transformation | The most common method to introduce DNA into living cells. In this procedure, bacterial cells take up DNA from the surrounding environment. Many host cell organisms, such as E. coli, yeast and mammalian cells, do not readily take up foreign DNA and have to be chemically treated to become competent to do so |
| 17 | Selectable markers | A gene or other identifiable portion of DNA whose inheritance can be followed and used in the selection of transformed cells from non-transformed ones |
| 18 | Insertional inactivation | The process by which a gene encoding a protein is inactivated by the insertion of a foreign DNA within the coding sequence of the protein |
| 19 | Ti plasmid | Tumour-inducing plasmid in Agrobacterium sp., causing tumours in plant cells |
| 20 | Tumour | Uncontrolled growth of cells in the body of plants or animals |
| 21 | Microinjection | The process of introducing rDNA into animal cells using a micropipette |
| 22 | Biolistics / gene gun | A direct gene-transfer method for delivering foreign genes into any tissues and cells or even seedlings. The foreign DNA is coated or precipitated onto the surface of minute gold or tungsten particles. These are bombarded onto the target tissue or cells using the gene gun |
| 23 | Embryonic stem (ES) cells | An embryonic cell having totipotency that can replicate indefinitely, transform into other types of cells, and serve as a continuous source of new cells. These cells are derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst or the 4–8 cell stage of the embryo |
| 24 | Lysozyme | The enzyme that digests the cell wall of bacteria |
| 25 | Cellulase | The enzyme that digests cellulose of plant cell walls |
| 26 | Chitinase | The enzyme that can digest the cell walls of fungi, which contain chitin |
| 27 | Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | A reaction in which DNA can be amplified in a short time to produce multiple copies of DNA (it can be done in vitro) |
| 28 | Recombinant protein | A protein whose encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host |
| 29 | Bioreactors | Vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products using microbial, plant or animal cells |
| 30 | Downstream processing | The process of formulation, separation and purification of rDNA products made in bioreactors |
| 31 | Spooling | The method of separating DNA precipitates in chilled ethanol, after its isolation from the other cell contents |
| 32 | Disarmed pathogens | Some bacteria or viruses (made harmless) that are used to transfer recombinant DNA carrying the gene of interest into the host's cells |
| 33 | Retrovirus | An RNA virus containing reverse transcriptase, which can be used to transfer the gene of interest into the host chromosome |
| 34 | Ligases | Enzymes that can join fragments of DNA |
| 35 | Vector | A DNA molecule, capable of replication in a host organism, into which a gene is inserted to construct a recombinant DNA molecule |
| 36 | Competent host cell | A cell which has been chemically treated to take up rDNA from its surroundings by making pores in its cell wall |
| 37 | Amplification | An increase in the number of copies of a specific DNA fragment; it can be in vivo or in vitro |
| 38 | Sticky ends | Single-stranded overhanging ends of DNA formed by the restriction enzymes cutting the strands of DNA at specific palindromic sequences |
| 39 | Denaturation | Double-stranded DNA is separated by applying a high temperature of 95 °C |
| 40 | Annealing | Primers bind to the 3′ ends of the separated DNA strands |
| 41 | Extension | DNA polymerase extends the primers by adding complementary nucleotides. Taq polymerase is used here |
| 42 | Taq polymerase | DNA polymerase obtained from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which is thermostable (it remains active at the high temperature of the denaturation step) |
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