CBSE Class 12 Sociology Question Paper 2026 Solved Code 62

SECTION A

1. Assertion (A) : Female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy.
Reason (R) : Literacy varies considerably across genders, across regions, and across social groups.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Both statements are true: female literacy has indeed been rising faster than male literacy, and literacy varies across gender, region and social group. But variation in literacy does not explain why female literacy is rising faster, so R is not the correct explanation of A.

Teacher's Note:
a) Female literacy has grown faster partly because it started from a lower base.
b) R is a general statement about disparity; A is about the rate of change.

2. Assertion (A) : Some communities were characterised as 'martial races', some others as effeminate or cowardly, yet others as untrustworthy.
Reason (R) : Stereotypes are fixed and inflexible characterisations of a group of people.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Both are true. Labelling groups as 'martial races', effeminate or untrustworthy are examples of stereotyping, and R defines a stereotype as a fixed, inflexible characterisation of a group. So R correctly explains A.

Teacher's Note:
a) Stereotypes are fixed, oversimplified images of a group.
b) Colonial classification of 'martial races' is a standard example.

3. _________ is a characteristic of the second/transitional stage in population growth of society.
(I) High death rate and population explosion
(II) Population explosion
(III) Low sex ratio
(IV) High maternal mortality rate [1 Mark]
Options :
(A) Only (I)
(B) Only (II)
(C) (II) and (III)
(D) Only (IV)

Answer: (B) Only (II)

In the second, transitional stage of the demographic transition, death rates fall sharply (through better health care and food supply) while birth rates remain high, causing a population explosion. So a high death rate (I) is wrong; a low sex ratio (III) and high maternal mortality (IV) are not defining characteristics of this stage.

Teacher's Note:
a) Stage 1: high births, high deaths. Stage 2: falling deaths, high births = explosion. Stage 3: both low.
b) Option (I) is tempting but contradicts the stage: death rate is falling, not high.

4. Assertion (A) : The government sells its shares in several public sector companies as part of the process of disinvestment.
Reason (R) : Many government workers are scared that they will lose their job after disinvestment.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Both are true. Disinvestment means the government sells its shares in public sector companies, and workers fear job loss. However, workers' fear is a consequence or reaction, not the explanation of what disinvestment is, so R does not explain A.

Teacher's Note:
a) Disinvestment = sale of government shares in public sector companies.
b) Effects on labour: job insecurity, contractualisation.

5. Which of the following are not the changes brought about by colonialism to the caste system ? [1 Mark]
(A) Numbering and recording of castes through census.
(B) Hundreds of petitions were addressed to the Census Commissioner by representatives of different castes claiming a higher position in the social scale.
(C) Linking castes to traditional occupations.
(D) Making 'Schedules' of castes for special treatment by the State.

Answer: (C) Linking castes to traditional occupations.

Census enumeration of castes, petitions by caste groups claiming higher status, and the drawing up of 'Schedules' for special treatment were all colonial-era changes. Linking castes to traditional occupations was not a new change introduced by colonialism - it already existed in the caste system.

Teacher's Note:
a) Colonial changes: census, caste petitions, schedules (1935).
b) Read the negative in the stem: the answer is the one that is NOT a colonial change.

6. Which of the following institutional incentives helps to build a feeling of unity in diversity ? [1 Mark]
(A) Citizens can find the institutional and political space to identify with both their country and cultural identities.
(B) Citizens cannot build trust in common institutions.
(C) Citizens do not participate in and support democratic politics.
(D) Explicit efforts are not required to end the cultural exclusion of diverse groups.

Answer: (A) Citizens can find the institutional and political space to identify with both their country and cultural identities.

Unity in diversity is strengthened when citizens can identify with both their nation and their cultural identities, without having to choose between them. The other options describe conditions that would weaken unity.

Teacher's Note:
a) Three options are negatives - eliminate them quickly.
b) Keyword: 'both' national and cultural identities.

7. An authoritarian state is the opposite of a democratic state because : [1 Mark]
(A) It is a state in which people have no voice.
(B) Those in power are accountable to everyone.
(C) The state responds well to the needs of the people.
(D) Authoritarian state does not abolish civil liberties.

Answer: (A) It is a state in which people have no voice.

In an authoritarian state, people have no effective voice and those in power are not accountable. A democratic state is the opposite - it is answerable to the people. The other options describe features of democracy, or wrongly say civil liberties are safe under authoritarian rule.

Teacher's Note:
a) Authoritarian states typically restrict civil liberties.
b) Democracy = accountability + responsiveness + civil liberties.

8. Assertion (A) : Sanskritisation operated similarly in different parts of the country.
Reason (R) : In regions where the non-Sanskritic were dominant, it was their influence that was stronger.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Assertion (A) is false: Sanskritisation did not operate the same way everywhere - its form and extent varied by region. Reason (R) is true: where non-Sanskritic influences were dominant, their influence was stronger.

Teacher's Note:
a) Sanskritisation = lower groups adopting the customs of higher (Sanskritic) castes to raise status.
b) Regional variation is a key point in the theory.

9. Which of the following is a public perception of disability ? [1 Mark]
(A) Disabilities are not understood as biologically given.
(B) The disabled person is not seen as a victim.
(C) Disability is not linked with an individual's self-perception.
(D) The idea of disability suggests that they are in need of help.

Answer: (D) The idea of disability suggests that they are in need of help.

Public perception treats disability as something biologically given, and the disabled person as a victim needing help or charity. So the idea that they are in need of help reflects the public perception; the other options reverse it.

Teacher's Note:
a) Public perception = disabled people as helpless, needing care.
b) Sociologists argue disability is also socially constructed.

10. Assertion (A) : India is still largely an agricultural country.
Reason (R) : Very few people in India have access to secure jobs.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Both are true - a majority of Indians still depend on agriculture, and few have secure jobs (most work in the informal sector). But the lack of secure jobs is not what explains why India is largely agricultural, so R is not the correct explanation.

Teacher's Note:
a) Over 90% of workers are in the unorganised sector.
b) True + true; check for a causal link.

Based on the following passage, answer Q. No. 11 and 12.

Very few people who relax on their day off realise that this holiday is the outcome of a long struggle by workers. That the work-day should not exceed eight hours, that men and women should be paid equally for doing the same work, that workers are entitled to social security and pension - these and many other rights were gained through social movements.

11. How have social movements shaped the world we live in ? [1 Mark]
(A) In the 19th century, reform movements did not influence caste and gender.
(B) Asia and Africa had nationalist movements, which ended colonialism.
(C) The Civil Rights Movement in the USA did not bring equal rights.
(D) Anti-apartheid struggle did not change society in South Africa.

Answer: (B) Asia and Africa had nationalist movements, which ended colonialism.

Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa brought an end to colonial rule. The other options are false: 19th-century reform movements did influence caste and gender, the Civil Rights Movement did bring equal rights, and the anti-apartheid struggle transformed South African society.

Teacher's Note:
a) Passage links social movements to rights we take for granted (8-hour day, equal pay, pensions).
b) Three options use 'did not' - all reversed.

12. Which of the following is not true about Karl Marx's view on violent collective action ? [1 Mark]
(A) 'Crowds' and 'mobs' were not made up of anarchic hooligans out to destroy society.
(B) Poor people in urban areas had a good reason for protesting.
(C) They often resorted to public protest because they had no other way of expressing their anger against deprivation.
(D) 'Crowds' and 'mobs' have no shared understanding of right and wrong.

Answer: (D) 'Crowds' and 'mobs' have no shared understanding of right and wrong.

On this view, crowds and mobs are not mindless hooligans: they have good reasons to protest and a shared understanding of right and wrong. So the statement that they have no shared understanding of right and wrong is not true.

Teacher's Note:
a) Contrast: elite view (mobs are disorderly) vs. this view (protest has reasons and shared moral sense).
b) Option (D) is the elite's misconception.

Based on the following passage, answer Q. No. 13 and 14.

The term 'Adivasi' connotes political awareness and the assertion of rights. Literally meaning 'original inhabitants', the term was coined in the 1930s as part of the struggle against the intrusion by the colonial government and outside settlers and moneylenders.

13. Which of the following is not true about Adivasis ? [1 Mark]
(A) Their economic conditions were better than the non-Adivasis.
(B) They are found mainly in the north-eastern parts of India.
(C) They were believed to be the people of the forest.
(D) They had practised shifting cultivation.

Answer: (A) Their economic conditions were better than the non-Adivasis.

Adivasis are among the most economically deprived groups in India, so it is untrue that their economic conditions were better than non-Adivasis. They live mainly in north-eastern and central regions, were regarded as forest people, and practised shifting cultivation.

Teacher's Note:
a) Adivasi = 'original inhabitants'; term coined in the 1930s.
b) Adivasis face displacement, poverty and marginalisation.

14. Write the following statements in the correct order :
(I) The resource extraction in areas inhabited by tribes can be traced to the British Government.
(II) Since the 1990s, when economic liberalisation policies were officially adopted by the Indian Government, the process of resource extraction in Adivasi areas has become even more powerful.
(III) The term 'Adivasi' was coined in the 1930s as part of the struggle against intrusion by the colonial government and outside settlers.
(IV) The most significant achievement of Adivasi movements includes attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh in the year 2000. [1 Mark]
Options :
(A) (III), (I), (II), (IV)
(B) (I), (II), (III), (IV)
(C) (IV), (I), (III), (II)
(D) (III), (II), (IV), (I)

Answer: (A) (III), (I), (II), (IV)

Chronologically: (III) the term 'Adivasi' coined in the 1930s; (I) resource extraction traced to British rule; (II) intensified after the 1990s liberalisation; (IV) statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh in 2000.

Teacher's Note:
a) Use the dates as anchors: 1930s, colonial period, 1990s, 2000.
b) Ordering questions can be solved by placing the earliest and latest first.

15. Which statement is true regarding the many-sided and paradoxical impact of the English language in India ? [1 Mark]
(A) English is not widely used in India.
(B) We do not have an impressive body of literary writings by Indians in English.
(C) The knowledge of English has given Indians an edge in the global market.
(D) For those who were traditionally deprived of access to formal education, such as Dalits, knowledge of English did not open doors of opportunities.

Answer: (C) The knowledge of English has given Indians an edge in the global market.

Knowledge of English has given Indians an edge in the global market. The other options are false: English is widely used, India has an impressive body of writing in English, and English has opened doors of opportunity for groups like Dalits.

Teacher's Note:
a) The impact is 'paradoxical': English both privileges and excludes.
b) Three options are negated statements - reverse them to see the truth.

16. Assertion (A) : Constitutional provisions define the powers of the States and the Centre.
Reason (R) : Respecting regional sentiments is not just a matter of creating States but it has to be backed up with an institutional structure.
Select the most suitable option considering the Assertion and Reason. [1 Mark]
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Answer: (A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Both are true, and R explains A: constitutional provisions supply the institutional structure that defines how power is shared between the States and the Centre, which is what makes respect for regional sentiment real rather than symbolic.

Teacher's Note:
a) Federalism = power sharing through constitutional provisions.
b) Creating states alone is not enough; institutional backing is needed.

SECTION B

17. "Malthus argued that human populations tend to grow at a much faster rate than the rate at which the means of human subsistence (specially food, but also clothing and other agriculture-based products) can grow. Therefore, humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because the growth of agricultural production will always be overtaken by population growth."
What are the methods that Malthus suggests to check the rise in population ? [2 Marks]

Answer:
Malthus suggested two kinds of checks:
1. Preventive checks - such as postponing marriage, or practising sexual abstinence or celibacy.
2. Positive checks - in the form of famines and diseases.

Teacher's Note:
a) 1 mark each for naming and explaining preventive and positive checks.
b) Malthus was pessimistic: population grows geometrically, food supply arithmetically.

18. (a) "Social exclusion is not accidental but systematic - it is the result of structural features of society." In the context of the above statement, highlight the meaning of social exclusion. [2 Marks]

Answer:
Social exclusion refers to the ways in which individuals or groups are cut off from full involvement in the wider society. It is the combined outcome of deprivation and discrimination, which prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social and political life of society. It is structural - the result of social processes and institutions rather than individual action.

Teacher's Note:
a) Include: cut off from society + structural/systematic + deprivation and discrimination.
b) Do not confuse with individual prejudice.

OR

(b) "Untouchability is an extreme and vicious aspect of the caste system." Explain any two dimensions of untouchability. [2 Marks]

Answer:
1. Exclusion: Dalits are prohibited from sharing drinking-water sources or participating in collective religious worship, social ceremonies and festivals.
2. Exploitation: economic exploitation of various kinds, such as confiscation of property.
3. Humiliation-subordination: imposition of forced, unpaid (or under-paid) labour, whose forms and intensity vary across regions.

Teacher's Note:
a) Three dimensions: exclusion, humiliation-subordination, exploitation. Any two suffice.
b) 1 mark per dimension with a brief explanation.

19. "Many of our cultural practices and patterns can be traced to our agricultural background. There is a close relationship between agriculture and culture." Give one reason to support the given statement and name any two agriculture-related festivals. [2 Marks]

Answer:
Reason: Land is not just a means of production or a form of property, nor is agriculture just a form of livelihood - it is also a way of life, so many cultural practices and patterns can be traced to our agrarian background.
Festivals: Pongal (Tamil Nadu), Bihu (Assam), Baisakhi (Punjab), Ugadi (Karnataka).

Teacher's Note:
a) 1 mark for the reason and 0.5 each for two festivals.
b) Harvest festivals are the standard examples.

20. "Our community provides us the language (our mother tongue) and the cultural values through which we comprehend the world. It also anchors our self-identity. Community identity is what we 'are' rather than what we have 'become'." How can you say that community identity is ascriptive ? [2 Marks]

Answer:
1. Community identity is based on birth - we do not choose the community we are born into.
2. People feel a deep sense of security and satisfaction in belonging to communities in which their membership is entirely accidental.

Teacher's Note:
a) Ascriptive = assigned by birth, not achieved through effort.
b) Use the phrase 'what we are' in your answer.

21. The 'Schedules' listing the castes and tribes recognised as deserving of special treatment because of the massive discrimination practised against them were drawn up in 1935, by the British Indian government. Post-independence, which was the most important initiative taken by the government to compensate for this discrimination ? Write briefly about it. [2 Marks]

Answer:
The most important initiative was reservation - reservation of seats in State and Central legislatures, in jobs in government service across all departments and public sector companies, and in educational institutions.
(Also acceptable: the 93rd Amendment for reservation for OBCs in higher education; Article 17, abolition of untouchability; the 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act. Any one relevant initiative.)

Teacher's Note:
a) Name the initiative (1) and describe it briefly (1).
b) Reservation is the commonly expected answer.

22. (a) The notion of minority groups usually involves some sort of a relative disadvantage. Exemplify the statement. [2 Marks]

Answer:
Minorities are subjected to prejudice and discrimination, so they develop a strong sense of group solidarity, a feeling of togetherness and belonging.
Example: religious minorities like Parsis or Sikhs may be relatively well-off economically, but they may still be disadvantaged in a cultural sense because of their small numbers relative to the overwhelming majority of Hindus.

Teacher's Note:
a) A minority is defined by relative disadvantage, not just numbers.
b) The example shows cultural disadvantage even without economic disadvantage.

OR

(b) Highlight the meaning of Secularism in both, the Western and Indian context. [2 Marks]

Answer:
Western context: separation of Church and State, and a progressive retreat of religion from public life.
Indian context: secularism includes the western sense but also involves more - a secular person or state does not favour any particular religion over others (equal respect for all religions).

Teacher's Note:
a) 1 mark for each context.
b) The difference: separation (West) vs. equal respect/no favouritism (India).

23. "In a country where half the children in the age group of 5 - 14 years are out of school, how can there be space for children with disabilities, especially if a segregated schooling is being advocated for them ?" State two ways by which a disabled child can achieve autonomy. [2 Marks]

Answer:
1. Inclusive education - recognition of disability in the wider educational discourse.
2. Vocational or skill-based education.

Teacher's Note:
a) Two distinct ways for 1 mark each.
b) The emphasis is on inclusion in mainstream schooling instead of segregation.

24. "In India, over 90% of the work, whether it is in agriculture, industry or services is in the unorganised or informal sector." What are the social implications of this small size of the organised sector ? [2 Marks]

Answer:
1. Very few people have experience of employment in large firms where they meet people from other regions and backgrounds.
2. Very few people have access to secure jobs with benefits, so they depend on their children in old age.
3. Informal workers do not have the experience of collectively fighting for proper wages and safe working conditions.
4. Personal relationships define work, and there are no well-defined rules, transparent recruitment, or mechanisms for complaint and redressal.

Teacher's Note:
a) Any two implications = 2 marks.
b) Think: job security, collective bargaining, rules vs. personal ties.

25. "In our current information age, social movements around the globe are able to join together in huge regional and international networks." Give suitable examples to support the statement. [2 Marks]

Answer:
1. Non-governmental organisations, religious and humanitarian groups, human rights associations, consumer protection advocates, environmental activists and others who campaign in the public interest form transnational networks.
2. The enormous protests against the World Trade Organisation in Seattle were organised partly through internet-based networks.

Teacher's Note:
a) Give concrete examples, e.g. WTO protests in Seattle.
b) The internet is the key enabler of these networks.

SECTION C

26. "Globalisation of agriculture or the incorporation of agriculture into the larger global market - a process that has had direct effects on farmers and rural society." Discuss the role of 'contract farming' in this process of globalisation. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. In regions like Punjab and Karnataka, farmers contract with multinational companies (such as PepsiCo) to grow crops like tomatoes and potatoes, which the company then buys for processing or export.
2. The company identifies the crop, provides seeds, inputs, know-how and often working capital; in return the farmer is assured of a market.
3. Contract farming caters mainly to elite, export-oriented products, which may not be ecologically sustainable, and diverts land away from food grain production.
4. It appears to provide financial security but can create insecurity as farmers become dependent on the company; it also disengages people from production and makes their indigenous agricultural knowledge irrelevant.

Teacher's Note:
a) Example, working, benefits and risks make a full answer.
b) Name PepsiCo, Punjab/Karnataka.

27. "The post-independent Indian state inherited and reflected the contradictions of the pre-independent period." Comment on the given statement with respect to the role of caste in the public sphere. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. The state was committed to the abolition of caste and made provision for it in the Constitution, but it was unable and unwilling to push through radical reforms that would have undermined the economic basis of caste inequality.
2. It assumed that operating in a caste-blind manner would automatically undermine caste privileges and eventually abolish the institution.
3. Democratic politics has been deeply conditioned by caste, which remains central to electoral politics.
4. State development activity and private industry affected caste indirectly by speeding up economic change - modern industry created new jobs with no caste rules.

Teacher's Note:
a) Show the contradiction: constitutional commitment vs. reality.
b) Mention electoral politics and economic change.

28. "In Indian nationalism, the dominant trend was marked by an inclusive and democratic vision." Explain. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. Inclusive vision because it recognised diversity and plurality.
2. Democratic vision because it sought to do away with discrimination and exclusion and bring forth a just and equitable society.
3. Inclusive and democratic ideas and humanism influenced Indian nationalists while framing strategies for minority rights and nation building.
4. For a strong and democratic nation, special constitutional provisions are required to ensure the rights of all groups, and minority groups in particular.

Teacher's Note:
a) Explain 'inclusive' and 'democratic' separately, then link to minority rights.
b) Give one point per mark.

29. "A considerable part of ritual in India has a direct reference to the pursuit of secular ends. Rituals have secular dimensions as distinct from secular goals." Justify with the help of suitable examples. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. Rituals provide men and women with occasions for socialising with their peers and superiors.
2. They are occasions for showing off the family's wealth, clothing and jewellery.
3. In recent decades the economic, political and status dimensions of ritual have become increasingly conspicuous.
4. For example, the number of cars lined up outside a wedding house and the VIPs who attend are an index of the household's standing in the local community.

Teacher's Note:
a) The example of a wedding is the most effective.
b) Distinguish 'secular dimensions' (status, wealth) from religious meaning.

30. "Jan Breman identified the change in the nature of relationship between landlords and agricultural workers." Explain the meaning of the phrase 'from patronage to exploitation' stated by him. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. There was a transition to capitalist agriculture, making cultivation more intensive and increasing the use of agricultural labour.
2. Cultivation became more commercialised and rural areas became integrated with the wider economy, leading to a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash.
3. Traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between landowners and agricultural workers (bonded labour) loosened.
4. A class of 'free' wage workers arose, indicating separation of workers from the means of production.

Teacher's Note:
a) Patronage = traditional protective ties; exploitation = cash wages and free labour without protection.
b) Include kind-to-cash and bonded-to-free labour.

31. (a) "Cities played a key role in the economic system of empires." Elucidate the statement with the help of suitable examples. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. Primary commodities could be easily exported and manufactured goods cheaply imported through cities.
2. Colonial cities were the prime link between the economic core in Britain and the periphery in colonised India - the concrete expression of global capitalism.
3. In British India, Bombay was planned and redeveloped so that by 1900 over three-quarters of India's raw cotton was shipped through the city.
4. Calcutta exported jute to Dundee, while Madras sent coffee, sugar, indigo dyes and cotton to Britain.

Teacher's Note:
a) Use the core-periphery idea and name the cities and commodities.
b) Bombay-cotton, Calcutta-jute, Madras-coffee/indigo.

OR

(b) "The laws of a colonised country did not have to stick to the democratic norms that the British back home had to follow." In what ways did the colonial laws favour the owners and managers of the tea industry ? [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. The colonial government often used unfair means to hire and forcibly keep labourers, acting on behalf of the British planters.
2. Colonial administrators were clear that harsh, undemocratic measures were taken against labourers to ensure the planters benefited.
3. Thousands were brought every year from distant homes to strange lands with an unhealthy climate and fevers, needing incentives that Assam's tea planters were unwilling to offer.
4. Planters instead took recourse to fraud and coercion, and persuaded the government to aid them by passing penal laws.

Teacher's Note:
a) Focus on penal laws, coercion and the state's support for planters.
b) Do not describe tea production - focus on laws.

32. "Because the tribal areas were located in mineral-rich and forest-covered parts of the country, tribals have paid a disproportionate price for the development of the rest of Indian society." How has national development been a challenge for the tribal population of India, post-Independence ? [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. National development involved building large dams, factories and mines, which benefited the mainstream at the expense of tribes.
2. Dispossession of tribal land occurred as a by-product of mineral exploitation and the use of favourable sites for hydroelectric plants, many of which were in tribal areas.
3. The coming of private property in land hurt tribals, whose community-based, collective ownership was placed at a disadvantage.
4. Many tribal regions face heavy in-migration of non-tribals in response to development pressure, threatening tribal communities and cultures and accelerating exploitation.

Teacher's Note:
a) Key theme: tribals bear the costs, mainstream gets the benefits.
b) Use examples: dams, mines, power plants.

SECTION D

33. The Rural and Urban population in India (1901 - 2011) is given below :
Table : Rural and Urban Population
Year | Rural Population (Millions) | Urban Population (Millions) | Rural (% of Total Population) | Urban (% of Total Population)
1901 | 213 | 26 | 89.2 | 10.8
1911 | 226 | 26 | 89.7 | 10.3
1921 | 223 | 28 | 88.8 | 11.2
1931 | 246 | 33 | 88.0 | 12.0
1941 | 275 | 44 | 86.1 | 13.9
1951 | 299 | 62 | 82.7 | 17.3
1961 | 360 | 79 | 82.0 | 18.0
1971 | 439 | 109 | 80.1 | 19.9
1981 | 524 | 159 | 76.7 | 23.3
1991 | 629 | 218 | 74.3 | 25.7
2001 | 743 | 286 | 72.2 | 27.8
2011 | 833 | 377 | 68.8 | 31.2
Based on the above data, answer the following questions. [6 Marks]

33.1 'Rural-urban migration is preferred for 'social reasons'. Mention any two reasons. [2 Marks]

Answer:
Two social reasons for rural-urban migration:
1. It may offer some partial protection from the daily humiliation faced by socially oppressed groups in the village, where everyone knows their caste identity.
2. The anonymity of the city allows poorer sections of socially dominant rural groups to do low-status work they would not do in the village.
(Also acceptable: decline of common property resources such as ponds and forests; limited opportunities for cash income in villages.)

Teacher's Note:
a) Two reasons = 2 marks.
b) Anonymity of the city is the key idea.

33.2 'It is not a question of numbers alone, processes of modern development ensure that the economic and social significance of the agrarian-rural way of life declines relative to the significance of the industrial way of life.' Highlight the reasons for the decline in the agrarian-rural way of life. [4 Marks]

Answer:
1. Agriculture contributes only about one-sixth of GDP, and the relative economic value of what rural people produce has fallen drastically.
2. Rural people are increasingly engaged in non-farm occupations such as transport services, business enterprises and craft manufacturing.
3. Mass media and communication now bring images of urban life styles and consumption patterns into rural areas, and mass transit and communication are bridging the rural-urban gap.
4. Common property resources such as ponds, forests and grazing lands are declining; they once helped poor people survive in villages, but have been privatised or exhausted.
5. Opportunities for earning cash income are limited in villages.

Teacher's Note:
a) The data show the rural share falling from 89.2% (1901) to 68.8% (2011), and the urban share rising from 10.8% to 31.2%.
b) Give four separate reasons: economic, occupational, cultural and resource-related.

34. 'Home-based work is an important part of the economy.' Elaborate on the functioning of any one 'Home-based' industry. [6 Marks]

Answer:
Example: the bidi industry.
1. Home-based work includes making lace, zari or brocade, carpets, bidis, agarbattis and many other products, mainly done by women and children.
2. An agent provides raw materials and picks up the finished product; home workers are paid on a piece-rate basis.
3. The process starts in forested villages where villagers pluck tendu leaves and sell them to the forest department or a private contractor; on average a person can collect 100 bundles (of 50 leaves each) a day.
4. The government auctions the leaves to bidi factory owners, who give them to contractors; the contractor supplies tobacco and leaves to home-based workers.
5. Workers, mostly women, roll the bidis - dampening the leaves, cutting them, filling in tobacco evenly and tying them with thread.
6. The contractor collects the bidis and sells them to the manufacturer, who roasts them and puts on his brand label; the manufacturer sells to a distributor, who supplies wholesalers and then neighbourhood pan shops.

Teacher's Note:
a) Trace the chain from raw material to consumer; six steps for 6 marks.
b) Mention piece-rate payment and the role of women.

35. How have the women's movements evolved over the period of history ? [6 Marks]

Answer:
1. The early 20th century saw the growth of women's organisations at national and local levels - the Women's India Association (1917), the National Council for Women in India (1925) and the All India Women's Conference (1926); many began with a limited focus but widened over time.
2. Women participated with men in struggles and revolts originating in tribal and rural areas in the colonial period.
3. This activity had organisations, ideology, leadership, shared understanding and the aim of bringing about change on a public issue, though it can be argued it did not constitute a social movement.
4. In the mid-1970s the women's movement was renewed - the second phase - with changes in organisational strategy and ideologies, and new issues such as violence against women.
5. Important legal changes resulted from the movement's campaigns: land rights, employment, and rights against sexual harassment and dowry.
6. Earlier reform: the anti-sati campaign led by Raja Rammohun Roy; the widow remarriage movement in Bombay (Ranade); Jyotiba Phule's attack on gender oppression; Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's movement for women's education; and women reformers such as Tarabai Shinde and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain.

Teacher's Note:
a) Answer chronologically: reform era, early 20th century organisations, post-1970s renewal.
b) Name organisations and years for full marks.

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