Class 8 Social Science When People Rebel Exam Notes

Class 8 Social Science When People Rebel Exam Notes. Please refer to the examination notes which you can use for preparing and revising for exams. These notes will help you to revise the concepts quickly and get good marks.

Covers the following topics:

The Revolt of 1857 is one of the most important events in Indian history, often called the First War of Independence. This Class 8 Social Science exam notes page on When People Rebel covers the political, administrative, economic, social, religious and military causes of the revolt, the events of 1857-1858 at Barrackpore, Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bihar and South India, the reasons why the revolt failed and the different historical interpretations of its nature.

Topics Covered

1. Causes of the Revolt of 1857
2. The events of 1857-1858
3. Causes of failure of Indians and success of the British
4. Interpretations of the events of 1857

INTRODUCTION

Nature of the Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 is often termed the First War of Independence because, for the first time in Indian history, different segments of Indian society stood up against a common enemy, that was the British.

Some of the questions that arise are: Why did such a revolt start in India? What led to this revolt? What were its results? The revolt of 1857 was the result and the culmination of popular discontent and a clear resistance against the exploitation and oppressive policy of the British in India.

British rule in India lasted for about 100 years, from 1757 till 1857. British rule created dissatisfaction and distrust among the masses, which led to outbreaks and continuous uprisings in different parts of the country. In 1857, a major revolt occurred which shook the very foundation of British rule. It had vast participation of peasants, craftsmen, soldiers, artisans, nobles and rulers.

The revolt of 1857 is also termed the Sepoy Mutiny by the British. Some Indian historians call it the First War of Independence.

British writers such as Sir James Outram and P.E. Roberts said that the mutiny started due to the introduction of greased cartridges. They described the events as a concentrated revolt of Indians and a fight between civilised and uncivilised people. The participants were united by one common feature, that is, hatred towards the British.

CAUSES OF THE REVOLT OF 1857

Political Causes

Imperial Policy of the British: All British rulers from Robert Clive to Lord Dalhousie followed an expansionist policy, annexing Indian states into the British Empire either by use of force or treachery. It gave rise to resentment among the native rulers, which culminated in the 1857 uprising.
Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie was a highly ambitious pro-imperialist. Under his Doctrine of Lapse, any ruler who did not have a natural heir to the throne would forfeit the right to rule for his future generation. This led to the annexation of states like Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Sambhalpur, Udaipur, Jaitpur and Baghat. It raised a wave of discontent against British rule.
Abolition of Pensions and Titles: Lord Dalhousie denied pensions and titles to the heirs of many Indian rulers. The pension and title of the rulers of Karnataka and Tanjore were abolished. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, was denied the title and pension after the Peshwa's death. As a result he became a sworn enemy of the British.
Annexation of Awadh: In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the grounds of maladministration. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was sent to Calcutta on an annual pension of Rs. 12 lakh. Thousands of courtiers, nobles and officials lost their jobs. The jagirs of about 21,000 taluqdars were taken away. As a result, a lot of discontent spread against the British in Awadh.
Disrespect of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal Emperor: Lord Hastings stopped the custom of presenting gifts to the Mughal emperor, and later his name was removed from the coins. Lord Dalhousie even chalked out a plan to deprive him of his fort and kingship. This turned the Muslims, who regarded the Mughal emperor in high esteem, against the British.
Blow to Aristocracy: The gradual disappearance of native states made many people, like scholars, artists, sculptors, fakirs and preachers, unemployed. These people had been patronised by the rulers of native states. Their condition became pathetic, giving rise to anti-British sentiments.

Administrative Causes

Alien Rule: India was ruled by administrators thousands of miles away in London. They were ignorant of the beliefs and customs of India. As a result, they could neither establish closeness with the Indian masses nor win their hearts.
British Judicial System: The new judicial system introduced by the British was improper and partial. Rich and resourceful people were able to manipulate judgements in their favour. This led to dissatisfaction among the common man.
Indians were Excluded from High Posts: Indians were not given high posts in the civil services and the military. The highest rank in the military open to Indians was that of Subedar, while in the civil services they could be promoted only to the post of Sadar Amin. This turned Indians against the British.
Lack of Representation in the Legislative Council: All the members of the Imperial Legislative Council were British. They were not well acquainted with the traditions, beliefs and problems of India. They forced laws on Indians without caring for their feelings. This infuriated Indians against the British administration.

Economic Causes

Drain of Wealth: The British remained foreign merchants. Their main motive was to return home with maximum money earned through wages, gifts and presents. One-third of the total revenue of the country was spent on the salaries of British officials. A huge amount was sent to England as pension for retired British officials. This immense drain of wealth pushed the country towards poverty and deprivation.
Destruction of Indian Industries, Trade and Commerce: The British administrators put the Indian economy at stake in order to protect their own economic interests. British economic policies resulted in Indian markets being flooded with British products, depriving Indian masses of their sources of livelihood.
Exorbitant Rate of Land Revenue: High land revenue, which amounted to more than one-half of the farmer's produce under the British East India Company, the harsh methods of collecting revenue and the law of eviction in case of non-payment pushed farmers towards poverty, deprivation and starvation. Between 1770 and 1857, India witnessed 12 famines, leading to the deaths of millions of people.
Resumption of Rent-free Lands: To increase the income of the Company, Governor General Lord William Bentinck ordered a survey of all jagirs that had been gifted by Indian rulers. Jagirs which could not produce enough documentary proof were confiscated or made to pay huge land revenue. The Indian Commission appointed in 1852 to investigate the property rights of landowners confiscated the jagirdari of 21,000 hereditary jagirs in a span of 5 years. It led to discontent among the landlords.
Rising Poverty and Unemployment: By 1857, the economic condition of Indian masses had become pathetic due to the economic policies of British administrators. People were unable to satisfy even their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. Such people joined the ranks of the rebels.

Social and Religious Causes

Maltreatment of Indians: The British treated Indians as inferior and uncivilised. Indians could not go to their clubs or travel with them. They were not appointed to high posts even on the basis of their merit. This maltreatment turned Indians against the British.
Interference in Social Life: Some humane British officers, like Lord William Bentinck, made efforts to weed out evils from Indian society such as Sati and human sacrifice. Lord Dalhousie banned female infanticide and legalised widow remarriage. However, Indians believed that the British were interfering in their social life, trying to convert them to Christianity and destroy Indian culture.
Spread of Western Education: The British started imparting education in Western knowledge and science through English. Under the new system, students belonging to different castes and communities studied under one roof without any discrimination. Indians were convinced that the British wanted to convert Indian youth to Christianity.
Propagation of Christianity: An important cause was the propagation of Christianity by Christian missionaries. The English missionaries criticised Indian religions while preaching Christianity. The study of the Bible was made compulsory in mission schools. This aroused a sense of fear and suspicion among the Indian masses, who began to think that the government wanted to destroy their religion by converting them to Christianity.

Military Causes

Unrest among the Indian Soldiers: The Indian soldiers recruited in the Company's army were an inseparable part of Indian society. Like the common masses, they too were hurt by the drain of wealth, economic exploitation, destruction of Indian industries, trade and commerce, the spread of English education, the propagation of Christianity and unnecessary interference in the socio-religious matters of Indians. British officials also interfered in the personal lives of Indian soldiers. This led to discontent among the Indian sepoys, and they rebelled.
Low Salary and Allowances to Indian Soldiers: Indian soldiers were deprived of the salary and allowances given to their British counterparts, even after 30 years of loyal service. The British high officials turned a deaf ear to the frequent requests of Indian soldiers to increase their salaries and allowances.
Disrespectful Attitude towards Indian Soldiers: Indian soldiers were shown disrespect. They were placed in the front rows in battle. They made the maximum sacrifice, but the credit went to British officers and soldiers. This became a major cause of the sepoy mutiny.
Resentment among Troops of Awadh: The annexation of Awadh in 1856 caused widespread dissatisfaction among the soldiers of Bengal, about 75,000 of whom belonged to Awadh. The British did not destroy the forts of Awadh. Consequently, the soldiers of Awadh prepared themselves to wage war against the British.
Military Failures of the British: The British faced defeats on many fronts. These included the First Sikh War (1845-46), the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and the First Afghan War (1838-1842). The British victory in the Crimean War (1854-56) was also not respectable. All these events shattered the belief that the British were invincible.
General Service Enlistment Act: In 1856, during Lord Canning's Governor-Generalship, the General Service Enlistment Act was passed. Under it, every new recruit had to serve anywhere in India or overseas. According to the religious beliefs of Hindus, crossing the sea was liable to destroy one's caste and religion. Hence it caused strong discontent among high caste Hindus.

Immediate Cause

The Enfield rifle was introduced in the army in 1856. The cartridges were smeared with grease and covered with paper caps, which had to be torn off before use. The sepoys believed that the grease was made of cow and pig fat, and they refused to use them, since it hurt the religious sentiments of both Hindus and Muslims.
On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey called on the other sepoys to revolt at Barrackpore. He was arrested and hanged on 8 April 1857.
On 9 May 1857, 85 soldiers at Meerut refused to use the cartridges. They were court-martialled and sentenced to 8 to 10 years of imprisonment. The sepoys then set fire to British houses and killed British men, women and children. Some of them proceeded towards Delhi.

THE EVENTS OF 1857-1858 (THE BEGINNING OF THE UPRISING)

How the Mutiny Began

The uprising of 1857 began at Barrackpore in Bengal. On 29 March 1857, a sepoy named Mangal Pandey asked his fellow soldiers to refuse to use the greased cartridges. Sergeant Hudson and Lieutenant Baugh tried to capture Mangal Pandey, but he shot down both of them. Mangal Pandey was then captured by other British officers. He was hanged on 8 April 1857 for revolting single-handed and attacking his superior officers. Mangal Pandey is regarded as the first martyr of the freedom struggle. The regiment was disarmed and disbanded. The sepoys then marched towards Meerut.

Meerut

On 9 May 1857, 85 sepoys of the Native Cavalry at Meerut refused to use the greased cartridges. They were court-martialled and sentenced to eight to ten years of imprisonment. This sparked off a general rising among the Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut. They raised the slogans "Har Har Mahadev" and "Kill the Firangis". On 10 May, they released their imprisoned comrades, killed their officers and raised the banner of revolt. The next day, as if driven by a magnet, they marched to Delhi after sunset.

Delhi

The rebel sepoys from Meerut arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning of 11 May. It was a Ramzan day, and the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah had just finished his prayers and meals. He heard the sepoys raising the slogan "Victory to Bahadur Shah" with great zeal. They had gathered under his window and told him, "We have come from Meerut after killing all the Englishmen there." Another group of sepoys also entered Delhi. The ordinary people also joined them. The local infantry joined them, killed their European officers and occupied the city. The rebellious soldiers proclaimed Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India and unfurled the Mughal banner. Some British soldiers under the command of General Willoughby offered some resistance, but they were miserably defeated. For some days, the rebels ruthlessly massacred Englishmen.
Shah Mal, who lived in a large village of Barout in Uttar Pradesh and belonged to a class of Jat cultivators, mobilised the headmen and cultivators of the chaurasi des (84 villages) and urged them to rebel against the British. He sent supplies to the sepoys who had mutinied in Delhi and stopped all official communication between British headquarters and Meerut. Shah Mal took over the bungalow of an English officer and turned it into a 'Hall of Justice', settling disputes and dispensing judgements. For a period, the people felt that Firangi Raj was over and their own Raj had come. Shah Mal was killed in a battle in July 1857.
When the news of the occupation of Delhi by the rebels spread across the country, there were risings at Lucknow, Aligarh, Benaras, Rohilkhand, etc. The soldiers from these centres also marched to Delhi.

Siege of Delhi

Lord Canning, the Governor General, sent a large force to suppress the uprising. He also asked the native rulers to send him military assistance. The government set up an Espionage Department and spread rumours to create dissension between Hindus and Muslims. After receiving military help from the rulers of Hyderabad, Gwalior, Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Nepal, etc., the British commander-in-chief, Henry Bernard Wilson, laid siege to Delhi. The British troops occupied Delhi on 14 September 1857 after fighting for three months, but the British commander, Nicholson, was killed in the battle. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II was taken prisoner. His two sons were shot dead before his eyes. The aged Bahadur Shah II was tried and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. Thus, the rule of the great Mughal dynasty finally came to an end.

Kanpur

The leader of the revolt at Kanpur was Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, the last Maratha Peshwa. He occupied Kanpur in the first week of June and declared himself the Peshwa. Mr. Wheeler, the British commander of the fort of Kanpur, surrendered after offering some resistance. Nana Sahib assured the Englishmen that he would transport them safely by boat to Allahabad. But when the Englishmen started boarding the boat at Sati Chora Ghat, some Indian soldiers, enraged by the news of the atrocities committed by General Neill at Allahabad and Benaras, attacked the British. They massacred a large number of British men. Only four British soldiers managed to reach Allahabad safely. The Indian soldiers had not attacked the British on the orders of Nana Sahib. He took 125 women and children under his protection. Later, these women and children were killed at Bibighar, and their bodies were thrown into a well.
Finally, General Havelock, General Neill and General Campbell crushed the rebels and reoccupied Kanpur. Nana Sahib, disappointed, fled to the forests of Nepal and was never heard of again. Tantia Tope, one of his most loyal servants, went to Jhansi and joined Rani Lakshmi Bai.

Lucknow

Dr. Ishwari Prasad observes that the revolt was probably nowhere as well organised as in Awadh. In organising this revolt, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah of Faizabad, Raja Man Singh, the Taluqdar of Shahganj, and Raja Hanumant Singh played prominent parts. The civilians and soldiers of Awadh rose in favour of the Nawab of Awadh. The attempt of Chief Commissioner Henry Lawrence to stem the tide by exciting Hindus and Muslims against each other failed. He then reorganised the defence of the Machhi Bhawan and the Residency, where the Englishmen and women were to take shelter in case of emergency.
On the night of 30 May 1857, a cannon boomed in the cantonment of Lucknow, the pre-arranged signal of revolt. Immediately, the massacre of Englishmen, burning of their houses and hoisting of the green flag of Emperor Bahadur Shah began. The revolt was led by the Begum of Awadh, who declared her young son Birjis Qadr as the Nawab of Awadh. Soon the rising took the shape of a popular revolt. The sepoys of Lucknow, the zamindars and peasants of Awadh and the Begum organised an all-out attack on the British. They freed the whole of Awadh in a few days.
The British General Henry Lawrence, along with his 1,000 British and 700 Indian sepoys, had to take shelter in the British Residency at Lucknow. On 1 July 1857, the rebels besieged the Residency. Henry Lawrence, the commander of the British army, was struck by a cannon ball and died. But the besieged British soldiers continued fighting against the rebels. In June 1857, General Neill had captured Allahabad. Neill and Havelock then proceeded towards Lucknow, but they had to fight the rebels at Kanpur before reaching Lucknow. After occupying Kanpur, they marched towards Lucknow. They defeated the rebels and reached the Residency to rescue the British soldiers. Neill was killed by the rebels in a street of Lucknow. Although Havelock reached the Residency, the siege continued. He realised that it was difficult to fight the larger number of rebels, so he waited for reinforcements from Allahabad.
Campbell, who had newly been appointed commander-in-chief of the army, marched with a large army to help Havelock. The forces of Campbell and Havelock together attacked the rebels. A terrible fight continued between the British forces and the rebels in the streets of Lucknow for many days. Ultimately, the rebels had to lift the siege of the Residency, but they continued to occupy a large part of the city of Lucknow. Havelock died on 24 September, and Campbell remained busy in the conquest of Kanpur till the first week of December.
In December 1857, Campbell received reinforcements which increased his strength. In February 1858, a large British army marched from Kanpur to Lucknow. Outram had already reached Alam Bagh with 4,000 soldiers. The troops of both commanders completely routed the rebels. The British then occupied the whole city of Lucknow. The loss of Lucknow broke the backbone of the rebels.

Benaras and Allahabad

After the rebels had captured Delhi, the uprising spread to Allahabad and Benaras. General Neill was sent to crush the revolt. He attacked the rebels with the help of Sikh and Madras regiments. Neill occupied Benaras before the rebels could occupy it. The British massacred thousands of rebels, women and children. From Benaras, Neill proceeded to Allahabad. On his way, he massacred thousands of innocent people. He occupied Allahabad on 18 June 1857.

Central India: Jhansi and Gwalior

Jhansi and Gwalior were the main centres of revolt in Central India. Rani Lakshmi Bai, the widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao, rose in revolt in Jhansi and led the rebels. In June 1857, she fought against the British like a true heroine, with bravery, courage and military skill, drove away the British after a fierce battle and established her rule over Jhansi. Tantia Tope, after the loss of Kanpur, came to Jhansi and joined Lakshmi Bai.
In April 1858, the British troops under the command of Sir Hugh Rose invaded Jhansi. Rani Lakshmi Bai was joined by Tantia Tope. Both of them fought battles against the British but were defeated after a tough fight. In May, the British occupied Kalpi. Tantia Tope and the Rani then left for Gwalior, hoping that the Scindia ruler of Gwalior would come to their help. But the Scindia refused to join them. Instead, the Scindia made preparations to fight against the Rani and Tantia Tope. But he was defeated by the Rani's troops, and one of his ministers, Dinkar Rao, escaped to Agra and took shelter with the British. In this way, Lakshmi Bai got the opportunity to occupy Gwalior in June 1858.
Now the British commander Hugh Rose, along with the Scindia, invaded Gwalior. On 11 June, a fierce battle took place between the two sides. The Rani died fighting on 17 June, in the battle dress of a soldier, mounted on a charger. On 20 June, Tantia Tope left Gwalior and escaped to the south. The British followed him and captured him. Tantia Tope was hanged on 18 April 1859.

Bareilly and Shahjahanpur

At Bareilly, the revolt was led by Khan Bahadur Khan, who was joined by Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah of Faizabad. In May 1858, the British Commander Campbell crushed the rebellion and occupied Bareilly. Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah ran away to Shahjahanpur. Campbell followed the Maulvi and defeated him. The Maulvi escaped to Awadh, but he was murdered through a conspiracy hatched by a brother of Raja Jagannath Singh in June 1858. Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many maulvis who played an important role in the uprising of 1857. He was popularly called Danka Shah. He fought in the famous battle of Chinhat, in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence were defeated. Many people believed that he had magical powers and could not be killed by the British. This belief formed the basis of his authority.

Bihar

Kunwar Singh, a discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur, was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar. Though he was 80 years old, he was an outstanding military leader and strategist of the revolt. He adopted guerrilla tactics of warfare and killed several Europeans whom he could lay his hands on. He later joined hands with Nana Sahib's forces. He also campaigned in Awadh and Central India. Returning to Bihar, he defeated the British forces at Arrah. But this proved to be his last battle. He died in April 1858 after sustaining a fatal injury. The fighting continued in Bihar under the leadership of his brother Amar Singh till the end of December 1859.

South India

South India was also not unaffected by the uprising. There were revolts in the present-day states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Even Goa and Pondicherry were not unaffected. There were risings of the people and soldiers at about 20 places in Maharashtra. The leader of the rebels in this region was Ranga Bapuji Gupte. A number of persons were arrested and sentenced to jail in the Andamans. Mansingh Rajput was hanged in public on 29 June 1858.
In Andhra Pradesh, the major centres of revolt were the coastal areas from Visakhapatnam to Nellore, along with Hyderabad, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Guntur and Cuddapah.
In Tamil Nadu, the major centres of revolt were Chengalpattu (near Chennai), North Arcot, Salem, Thanjavur, Madurai, Coimbatore and Tiruchirappalli.
In June 1857, the First Infantry Battalion refused to move from Madras (Chennai). In September 1858, Kunda Swami Mudali murdered some European employees at Salem.
In Kerala, the revolt took place especially in Travancore. The soldiers and local people forced open the grain shops. The government arrested 20 soldiers. The revolt continued till 1859.

Other Places

Punjab was also not entirely peaceful. The Hindustani sepoys at Mianmir Cantonment near Lahore rose in revolt, but they were severely crushed. There were small risings in south-eastern Punjab (now called Haryana). Here the rebels were led by Nahar Singh of Ballabgarh, Abdul Rahim Khan, the Nawab of Jhajjar, and Rao Tula Ram of Rewari. Of these leaders, the first two were hanged, while the third escaped to Kabul, where he spent the rest of his life.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF INDIANS AND SUCCESS OF THE BRITISH

Breaking out before the Fixed Date
The date fixed for the revolt was 31 May, but the hanging of Mangal Pandey (8 April 1857) made the revolt break out on 10 May. The whole plan became disorganised, and the rebels failed to push it systematically with their full force.

Cooperation of Native States with the British
Only a small proportion of Indian rulers took part in the revolt. The rulers of Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Sirhind, Gwalior, Bhopal, Hyderabad, Rajasthan, Baroda and Kashmir showed their complete loyalty to the British and gave them logistical support. It became easy for the British to win against the rebel Indian states.

Lack of Cooperation of the Elite
Most of the elites, the middle class and the merchant class did not support the rebels, as the rebel rulers had imposed taxes on them to raise money. Further, the educated class believed that India could progress under British rule.

Limited Resources of the Rebels
The rebels had a limited stock of ammunition and other logistical resources, making it easier for the British to defeat them.

Incompetent Leadership
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was too old to lead the revolt. Other leaders, like Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantia Tope and Nana Sahib, led bravely but failed to prove themselves as good and able generals.

Competent British Generals
From the beginning, the British were led by competent generals. John Lawrence did not allow the revolt to spread in Punjab, and Wilson and Nicholson showed courage in recapturing Delhi. Hugh Rose defeated the large armies of Rani Lakshmi Bai and Tantia Tope, while Havelock routed the troops of Nana Sahib. Likewise, with extraordinary courage, General Neill, Havelock and Campbell curbed the rebellion in Awadh.

INTERPRETATIONS OF THE EVENTS OF 1857

There is a controversy among scholars about the nature of the revolt of 1857. Perhaps there is no other event in the history of India about whose nature so many divergent views have been expressed. Some Indian historians hold that it was a Muslim organised revolt against Christianity.

First View: It was a Sepoy Mutiny

Most European writers hold that it was essentially a military rising. John Lawrence, John Seeley, Charles Raikes, Kaye, Malleson and Syed Ahmad Khan gave the following arguments in support of this view.
There were many military causes of the revolt. The Indian sepoys were looked upon with contempt by English officers. They received very meagre salaries and allowances. Their religious sentiments were injured. All this sparked off a general mutiny of the Indian soldiers.
The main cause of the revolt was the issue of greased cartridges. When the British officers ordered the troops to use cartridges tipped with the fat of pigs and cows, they refused to do so. It hurt the religious sentiments of the soldiers, and they rose in revolt against the British.
The revolt was first started everywhere by dissatisfied and disgruntled soldiers, and they were led by discontented native rulers. For example, the sepoys first rose in revolt in March-April 1857 at Barrackpore. At Meerut also, the sepoys first started the revolt on 10 May and then proceeded to Delhi. Then it became a general revolt at Delhi. In this connection, John Lawrence wrote, "It is my decided impression that the mutiny had its origin in the army itself, but was simply taken advantage of by the disaffected persons in the country to compass their own needs."
The rebels had no support of the common people. At some places, the sepoys even looted the common people, so the people had no sympathy for the rebels. John Seeley held that it was a wholly unpatriotic and selfish sepoy mutiny, with no native leadership and no popular support.
The revolt was confined mainly to some parts of India, such as Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Central India. It had little effect on Punjab, Sindh and South India. On the other hand, some of these regions helped the British in suppressing the revolt.
Only a few contingents of the sepoys rose in revolt. The Sikh, Rajput and Gurkha regiments took no part in the rebellion and rather helped the British in suppressing it.
All the native rulers of India did not join the revolt. Only those who had personal grievances against the British joined it. For instance, Nana Sahib was refused his pension. Rani Lakshmi Bai was not allowed to install her adopted son on the throne after the death of her husband. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II was informed that his successors would not be allowed to use the historic Red Fort. Thus, only those rulers who were dissatisfied with the British led the revolt.
Some other writers do not agree that it was only a sepoy mutiny. No doubt the above causes instigated the sepoys to revolt, but there were other political, social and economic causes of the revolt as well. Not only the sepoys but also Nana Sahib, Bahadur Shah, Lakshmi Bai, Ahmadullah Shah and many other rulers and prominent persons took active part in the revolt. It was due to them that the revolt took such a formidable form. Had it been only a sepoy mutiny, it would not have lasted so long.

Second View: Organised Hindu-Muslim Uprising (First War of Indian Independence)

According to James Outram, the Mutiny of 1857 was the result of a joint conspiracy hatched by Hindus and Muslims. Kaye and Malleson regarded it as an organised rebellion. Veer Savarkar and Ashok Mehta held that it was the "First War of Indian Independence". It was the first really large-scale popular outbreak against British rule. It was a national revolt against slavery. Pandit Nehru, in his work 'Discovery of India', wrote that the Great Rising of 1857 had some nationalist elements in it.
All sections of Indian society joined the revolt: Besides the Indian soldiers, the native rulers and the Nawabs, the Muslims, the Hindus, the rich and the poor all helped the rebels. The prominent leaders of the revolt were Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah, Zeenat Mahal, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope and Kunwar Singh. The powerful taluqdars like Raja Man Singh and Raja Hanumant Singh and the eminent Muslim leader Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah also joined the uprising. Ashok Mehta remarks, "Hindus and Muslims worked together, their blood flowed to intermingle, and differences were forgotten." It is thus evident that it was not only a sepoy mutiny but also a national revolt.
Role of Women: Indian women also participated in the revolt. At some places, women inspired the rebels to fight the enemy. They also fought side by side with men in battles. The best example of their contribution to the national revolt is Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, who laid down her life fighting on the battlefield.
The leaders were not motivated by selfish interests: It is incorrect to say that all the leaders of the revolt were motivated by selfish interests. For instance, Emperor Bahadur Shah II, in his letter to the Rajput chiefs, wrote that the Firangis must be turned out of India and the whole of Hindustan should become free of their rule. If a leader united all the rebel leaders under one banner, he would hand over all the powers to a confederacy of Indian rulers. During the revolt, Bahadur Shah II moved in the streets of Delhi assuring everyone that the war was against the British and that no community of India should have any fear. Similarly, Tantia Tope did not join the revolt for any selfish interest but to free his countrymen from foreign rule.
The revolt was pre-planned: The revolt was planned many months before it actually took place. Patriotic native soldiers, disguised as sadhus, roamed the cantonments to incite the soldiers to be ready for revolt. Historians point to the circulation of chapatis and lotuses, and to the propaganda by sanyasis, fakirs and mandlis. It is said that many regiments of Indian sepoys were carefully linked in a secret organisation, which had fixed 31 May 1857 as the day of rising. Had it been only a sepoy mutiny, it would not have been planned.
Long-standing grievances of the Indians: European historians hold that only the question of greased cartridges caused the revolt. But the Indian public opinion had been influenced by many social, economic and political factors right from the time the British came to India. The greased cartridge episode was only a spark which ignited the material that had been accumulating for a long time. It gave Indians an opportunity to free their country from foreign rule. They came to the help of the army when it rose to achieve the mission.
National awakening was emerging: The spirit of national awakening was emerging in the country at the time of the uprising, but due to a lack of adequate means of transport and communication, it was not easy for people to organise themselves in a short span of time. So the mutiny could not spread to the whole country. As the revolt had occurred before the fixed date, it could not spread to some important parts of India. The revolt was suppressed soon after it broke out. Otherwise, it would have spread across the whole of India.

Third View: Muslim-Organised Revolt

James Outram and some other historians hold that the Revolt of 1857 was a Muslim-organised revolt, but that it took advantage of the dissatisfaction of Hindus with British rule. This view does not hold much ground. Had the revolt been organised by only one community, the people of other communities would not have joined it. In fact, all sections of Indian society combined to rise against foreign rule. Dr. Ashok Mehta remarks, "Hindus and Muslims worked together, their blood flowed to intermingle, all differences were forgotten."

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