CBSE Class 8 Social Science Advanced How, When and Where Notes Set 01

How, When and Where

Periods of History

History is the branch of knowledge that records and studies the events of the past. The past is very long, stretching from the beginning of life up to today, so it is hard to study as a single block. Historians therefore split it into three periods, ancient, medieval and modern, using the features that are common to each period. This splitting is called periodisation.

The Modern Period: An Overview

The Renaissance in Europe encouraged people to question and enquire. Interest in the life of human beings was revived, and this gave rise to humanism, which was expressed in music, painting, sculpture, theatre and literature. Humanism is the European intellectual movement that held that although God created the universe, development and industrial progress are the achievements of human beings.

1. In AD 1453 the Turks took over the overland trade routes linking Europe with the East, so the Europeans had to search for other routes by sea.
2. The urge for adventure that the Renaissance created also encouraged long voyages.
3. Spanish and Portuguese explorers such as Magellan, Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama found new sea routes across the world. Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around the continent of Africa.
4. The new sea routes opened up new trade contacts, and these led to the rise of imperialism.

Importance of Dates

Historical events belong to a particular time. The dates fix them in order and let us build a timeline. Some important dates from the modern period are given below.

Do you know? The Bengal Gazette, published in 1780 from Calcutta, was India's first newspaper. Rast Goftar, published in 1851 from Bombay, was the first newspaper in Gujarat.

How Do We Periodise?

Historians divide the past according to their own ideas about it. A well-known example is The History of British India by James Mill, a Scottish historian, economist, political theorist and philosopher, who was born in 1773. Mill divided the history of India into three periods:

1. Hindu period
2. Muslim period
3. British period

His reasons were these. Before the British arrived, India was ruled by Hindu and Muslim kings, whom he regarded as despotic. In his view, Indian society was full of religious intolerance, caste discrimination and superstitious practices. He felt that only the British could bring enlightenment and happiness to the Indians by improving them.

Many historians today do not follow Mill. They divide the history of India into ancient, medieval and modern periods. The modern period is said to have begun in the 18th century. Because India was colonised in this period, it is also called the colonial period. Present-day history also pays attention to many issues besides dates and periods, such as the life and work of ordinary people.

How Can We Study the Modern Period?

Sources for the modern period are plentiful and well preserved, and modern scientific methods help us keep records safe. They fall into two groups.

A. Primary sources

Primary sources are the first-hand evidence: archaeological sources, original documents, photographs and videotapes.

1. Archaeological sources are the buildings found across the country, for example the Gateway of India, Parliament House and Rashtrapati Bhavan.
2. Original documents such as government orders and official letters are very valuable sources. They are kept safe in the archives and give first-hand knowledge of events.
3. Newspapers, magazines, letters and pamphlets of the period are kept in libraries and archives. They were printed in many languages, and some newspapers are still published today. Letters show the situation from a personal point of view.
4. Printed books describe progress in art, literature, science, technology and medicine, and they also describe the social, economic and political conditions of the time. Biographies and autobiographies tell us about the lives and thoughts of famous people.
5. Films, photographs and videotapes show the lives of famous people and events. What we see in a film or video clip stays in the mind longer than what we see with our own eyes.
6. Mapping. To rule India well, the British felt the need to map the subcontinent, and had many surveys carried out. They set up the Survey of India at Dehradun, which drew detailed maps showing the location of towns and cities and features such as plants and animals.

The picture of the first map of India produced by James Rennell in 1782 (the frontispiece of that map) shows Brahmans offering the Shastras to Britannia. Rennell, who had been asked by Robert Clive to prepare maps of Hindustan, strongly supported British conquest and thought that maps were necessary for domination. The picture suggests that Indians willingly handed over their ancient texts to Britannia, the symbol of British power, and asked her to protect Indian culture.

Old advertisements are also sources. They show how markets were created and how new tastes were spread. A 1922 advertisement of Lipton tea shows the outer wall of an Indian palace, with Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught and third son of Queen Victoria, seated on a horse. It suggests that royalty was linked with the tea.

B. Secondary sources

Secondary sources are reports, reviews, articles and printed books that are based on primary sources.

1. Writings of Indologists. Scholars such as James Mill, Max Mueller and Vincent Smith studied Indian culture and ancient Indian texts. The British wanted to understand Indian traditions, customs and norms in order to rule efficiently. These colonial writers presented India as a backward country and British rule as a blessing in disguise.
2. Nationalist writings. Nationalist writers such as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee wanted to rediscover India's glorious past. Dadabhai Naoroji's 'Poverty and British Rule in India' and Jawaharlal Nehru's 'Discovery of India' showed the bad effects of British rule and the glory of India's past. Writings such as 'Neel Darpan' reflected the grievances of the Indian people against British rule.

Surveys become important

The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be effectively governed, so surveys became common under colonial rule.

1. Revenue surveys were held in villages to learn about the topography, soil quality, plants and animals, local histories and cropping patterns.
2. Census operations were held every ten years from the end of the 19th century. They prepared detailed records of the number of people in each province and gathered information on castes, religions and occupations.
3. There were many other surveys: botanical, zoological, archaeological, anthropological and forest surveys.

What Official Records Do Not Tell Us

Official records show what the officials thought, what interested them and what they wanted to preserve for the future. They do not always tell us what other people in the country felt or what lay behind their actions. For that we use the diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies of important personalities, and popular booklets sold in the local bazaars. When printing spread, newspapers were published and issues were debated in public. Leaders and reformers wrote to spread their ideas, and poets and novelists wrote to express their feelings.

Key Words

Let's Recall

1. History tells the story of the past: how things were and how they changed.
2. In the 19th century the Scottish economist and political philosopher James Mill divided India's past into Hindu, Muslim and British periods.
3. Many historians now divide it into ancient, medieval and modern periods.
4. The modern period began in India in the 18th century. As it saw the colonisation of India, it is also called the colonial period.
5. Primary sources of the modern period include official records, surveys, monuments, diaries, travellers' accounts and autobiographies of leaders.
6. Books, newspapers, magazines and pamphlets of the time are secondary sources, which also throw useful light on the period.