NCERT Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society India and Beyond Part 1 Chapter 04 New Beginnings Cities and States PDF Download

Chapter 4: New Beginnings: Cities and States

The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend [only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ....
- Kautilya, Arthashastra

[Figure 4.1: Ruins of a major structure at Rajagriha (modern-day Rajgir in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada, See in your textbook]

The Big Questions

1. What is meant by 'Second Urbanisation of India'?
2. Why were the janapadas and mahajanapadas an important development in India's early history?
3. What kind of system of governance did they evolve?

Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is, over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India's 'First Urbanisation', disintegrated. Some of its cities were abandoned; in others, some people continued living there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure with a ruling class at the head. And for a whole millennium, urban life remained absent from India, though there may have been a few towns here and there in north India.

[Figure 4.2: The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper, See in your textbook]

Indeed, there were important regional cultures, which we need not study here.

Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus (or Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we know this? Mainly from two sources: (1) archaeological excavations that have confirmed the existence of those ancient urban centres, and (2) ancient literature describing them - late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of references to these new urban centres.

This new phase is often called India's 'Second Urbanisation' - which, incidentally, has continued right up to today! Let us see how this phase emerged.

Teacher's Note

Remember that the 'First Urbanisation' refers to the Indus/Harappan cities that declined around 2000 BCE, leaving a gap of roughly 1,000 years with little urban life. The 'Second Urbanisation' that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains is a completely fresh start, not a continuation of the earlier civilisation. Do not confuse which period each term refers to in your answers.

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a common language and common customs, each clan came to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a raja or ruler. ('Janapada' is a Sanskrit word which means 'where the people (jana) have set foot (pada),' that is, have settled down.)

The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some of those early states had merged together; the resulting bigger units were known as mahajanapadas. Although the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent list gives the names of 16 mahajanapadas, extending from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and to Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River (see map). There may have been a few more, along with some smaller janapadas continuing independently.

Teacher's Note

The distinction between janapadas and mahajanapadas is about size and time: janapadas were the smaller, earlier units that existed towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, while mahajanapadas were the larger merged states that formed by the 8th-7th centuries BCE. When you read "16 mahajanapadas," remember this is only the most common count - the texts vary. Focus on understanding why they merged (trade networks) rather than memorising all 16 names.

Key Points

• India's 'First Urbanisation' in the Indus/Harappan period ended around 2000 BCE, and cities disappeared for about 1,000 years until the 'Second Urbanisation' began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains.
• Janapadas were territorial units led by rulers, formed when clans sharing language and customs settled and organised themselves towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE.
• Mahajanapadas were larger states created when janapadas merged together by the 8th-7th centuries BCE, often listed as 16 major ones stretching across the Subcontinent.
• Trade networks played a key role in connecting janapadas and encouraging them to merge into bigger, more powerful mahajanapadas.

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