GSEB Class 11 Sanskrit संस्कृत साहित्य का परिचय Solutions

GSEB Solutions

GSEB Class 11 Sanskrit व्याकरण संस्कृत साहित्य का परिचय

GSEB Std 11 Sanskrit Vyakaran संस्कृत साहित्य का परिचय

प्रस्तावना :

संस्कृत साहित्य के दो मुख्य विभाग हैं :

• वैदिक साहित्य और
• प्रशिष्ट साहित्य।

वैदिक साहित्य के आद्यग्रंथ ऋग्वेद, यजुर्वेद, सामवेद और अथर्ववेद - ये चार वेद हैं। इन्हें संहिता ग्रंथ के रुप में पहचाना जाता है। इसके बाद दूसरे क्रम पर वेद की इन संहिताओं की विशेष स्पष्टता के लिए रचित शतपथ इत्यादि ब्राह्मणग्रंथ आते हैं। तत्पश्चात् ऐतरेय आदि आरण्यक ग्रंथ, ईशावास्य आदि उपनिषद तथा वेदों के संरक्षण के लिए रचे गए शिक्षा, कल्प, व्याकरण, निरुक्त, छंद एवं ज्योतिष - इन छः वेदांगों का क्रम है।

अंत में सांख्य, योग, न्याय, वैशेषिक, पूर्व मीमांसा और उत्तर मीमांसा (वेदांत) ये छः वेद के उपांग हैं, इन्हें भी वैदिक साहित्य में समाविष्ट किया गया है।

जैसा कि हमने ऊपर देखा कि वैदिक साहित्य का आरंभ वेद की संहिताओं से होता है। वेद की इन संहिताओं की संख्या चार है - ऋग्वेद, यजुर्वेद, सामवेद तथा अथर्ववेद, भारतीय परंपरा के अनुसार ये वेद संहिताएँ अपौरुषेय हैं अर्थात् ये किसी व्यक्ति विशेष की रचना नहीं हैं। ईश्वर ने स्वयम् ही तप से पवित्र हुए ऋषियों के हृदय में वेदों को प्रकाशित किया है। जिस तरह ईश्वर अनादि, अनंत और अविनाशी है, वैसे ही

ईश्वर के ज्ञान से ये वेद भी अनादि, अनंत और अविनाशी हैं। जिनके हृदय में वेदों का प्रकाश हुआ वे ऋषि मंत्रद्रष्टा या वेद के द्रष्टा कहलाते हैं।

ऋषयः मन्त्रदृष्टारः। ऐसे ऋषियों के नामों का आज भी तत्संबंधी मंत्र के साथ उल्लेख होता है।

भारतीय परंपरा में ऐसा माना जाता है कि वेदों के आविर्भाव का समय सृष्टि का प्रारंभकाल है। विश्वभर के विद्वानों के मतानुसार ऋग्वेद विश्व का प्राचीनतम ग्रंथ है। इससे स्पष्ट है कि वेद साहित्य सर्वाधिक प्राचीन है।

वेद शब्द का अर्थ

वेद शब्द विद् धातु से निष्पन्न है। विद धातु के अनेक अर्थ हैं; जैसे जानना, पाना और होना इत्यादि। इन सभी धात्वर्थों को देखने से पता चलता है कि वेद शब्द विविध अर्थों का वाचक है। जैसे - जिससे सभी मनुष्य सत्य या ईश्वर को जान सकें, प्राप्त कर सकें, विचार कर सकें और विद्वान बन सकें। उन्हें 'वेद' कहते हैं।

वेद के पर्याय पद

भिन्न-भिन्न कारणों से वेदों के नामांतर भी हुए हैं। जैसे - विविध शास्त्रों का मूलस्रोत इन वेदों में होने के कारण इन्हें आम्नाय या आगम कहा जाता है। एक ऋषि के पास से दूसरे ऋषि द्वारा कंठस्थ करके संरक्षित किए जाने से वेद श्रुति कहलाते हैं। आरंभ में ऋग्वेद, यजुर्वेद और सामवेद ये तीन ही वेद मुख्य थे। इसलिए वे 'त्रयी' अथवा 'वेदत्रयी' के रूप में जाने जाते हैं। इस तरह इन वेदों का अलग-अलग संदर्भ में भिन्न-भिन्न नाम से उल्लेख होता है।

1. ऋग्वेद

ऋग्वेद - विषय :

चारों वेद संहिताओं में ऋग्वेद का क्रम प्रथम है। ऋग्वेद प्राचीनतम वेद है। ऋच् धातु से ऋक् या ऋचा शब्द बना है। वैदिक परम्परा के अनुसार जिसमें स्तुति की गई हो, ऐसे मंत्र को ऋक या ऋचा कहते हैं। ऋग्वेद के मंत्रों में अग्नि, इन्द्र, वरुण, पर्जन्य, उषा आदि देवों की स्तुति की गई है।।

ऋग्वेद का आकार :

ऋग्वेद में दस हजार से अधिक मंत्र है और मंत्र दस मंडलों में विभाजित हैं। प्रत्येक मंडल में अनेक सूक्त हैं। ऋग्वेद के सूक्तों की कुल संख्या 1028 है। इसके अंतर्गत मंत्रों की कुल संख्या 10552 है। प्रत्येक सूत्र में एकाधिक मंत्र हैं। ऋग्वेद की पाँच शाखाएँ थीं। आज उनमें से दो शाखाएँ ही उपलब्ध हैं - शाकल और बाष्कल।

ऋग्वेद महिमा :

ऋग्वेद में आए पुरुषसूक्त, नासदीय सूक्त, हिरण्यगर्भसूक्त जैसे दार्शनिक सूक्तः संज्ञान सूक्त, दानस्तुतिसूक्त,

विवाहसृक्त जैसे पारिवारिक सामाजिक सूक्त तथा पुरुरवा-उर्वशी संवाद-सूक्त, सरमापणि संवादसूक्त जैसे संवाद सूक्त अत्यंत महत्त्वपूर्ण हैं और वे अति प्रसिद्ध हुए हैं। विद्वान मानते हैं कि ऋग्वेद के संवाद सूक्तों से संस्कृत नाटकों का विकास हुआ।

ऋग्वेद की सूक्तियाँ

एकं सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति। - ऋग्वेद (ऋ.), मण्डल 1, सूक्त 168, ऋचा 46
एक सत्य - ईश्वर को विद्वान अनेक रीति से कहते हैं।

सा मा सत्योक्तिः परि पातु विश्चतः। ऋ. 10. 37. 2
वे सत्यवचन - सत्यज्ञान मेरी सब तरफ से रक्षा करें।

संगच्छध्वं संवदध्वं सं वो मनांसि जानताम्। ऋ. 10. 191.2
साथ चलो, साथ में बोलो, आप सबके मन में एकसमान विचार जन्में।

2. यजुर्वेद

यजुर्वेद विषय :

देवपूजा, संगतिकरण और दान - ऐसे तीन अर्थ रखनेवाली यज् धातु से यजुस् शब्द बना है। इससे देवपूजन या यजन् करनेवाले मंत्रों को यजुस् कहते हैं। इस तरह इस वेद में आनेवाले यजुस् - मंत्रों का अनेक प्रकार के यज्ञ-याज्ञादि विधिविधान के साथ संबंध होने से इस संहिताग्रंथ को यजुर्वेद कहा जाता है।

यजुर्वेद आकार :

यजुर्वेद में 1975 मंत्र हैं। ये सभी मंत्र चालीस अध्यायों में विभाजित हैं। प्रत्येक अध्याय में मंत्रों की संख्या अलग-अलग है। कतिपय मंत्र पद्यात्मक हैं, तो कुछ मंत्र गद्यात्मक भी हैं।

यजुर्वेद की मुख्यतः दो शाखाएँ हैं :

• शुक्ल यजुर्वेद और
• कृष्ण यजुर्वेद।

याज्ञवलक्य ने सूर्य की उपासना करके उनकी कृपा से यजुर्वेद का ज्ञान प्राप्त किया था, उसे शुक्ल यजुर्वेद कहा जाता है। शुक्ल यजुर्वेद की दो शाखाएँ प्रचलित हैं :

• काण्व और
• माध्यंदिन।

जबकि कृष्ण यजुर्वेद की चार शाखाएँ प्रचलित हैं :

• तैत्तिरीय

• मैत्रायणी
• काठक और
• कपिष्ठल कठ।

यजुर्वेद सूक्तियाँ

अनृतात्सत्यमुपैमि । - यजुर्वेद, अध्याय 1. मन्त्र 4
मैं असत्य से दूर होकर सत्य को प्राप्त होऊँ।

मित्रस्याहं चक्षुषा सर्वाणि भूतानि समीक्षे। - यजु. 16. 18
मैं सभी प्राणियों को मित्र की दृष्टि से देखू।

3. सामवेद :

सामवेद विषय :

'साम' का अर्थ है गीति-गान। इसलिए सामवेद गान-मंत्रों का संग्रह है। यज्ञ के अवसर पर उद्गाता ऋत्विज इन मंत्रों से देवताओं का स्तुतिगान करते हैं। वेदानां सामवेदोऽस्मि। (वेदों में सामवेद हूँ।) ऐसा कहकर श्रीकृष्ण ने भगवद् गीता में सामवेद की महिमा बताई है।

सामवेद आकार :

सामवेद में कुल 1875 मंत्र हैं। ये सभी पूर्वार्चिक तथा उत्तरार्चिक, इस तरह के दो भागों में विभक्त हैं। पूर्वार्चिक में अग्नि, इंद्र, सोम इत्यादि देवों का स्तुतिगान हैं और उसमें कुल 650 मंत्र हैं, जबकि उत्तरार्चिक में 1225 मंत्र हैं, जिनमें जशराज, संवत्सर, एकाह इत्यादि वैदिक अनुष्ठान के मंत्रगीत हैं।

की असंख्य शाखाएँ होने का उल्लेख मिलता है। आज तो मात्र तीन ही शाखाएँ उपलब्ध है :

• कौथुमीय,
• राणायणीय और
• जैमिनीय।

सामवेद की विशेषता :

संगीतशास्त्र का उद्गम सामवेद को माना गया है। साम के चार प्रकार के गान प्रसिद्ध हैं - ग्राम गान, अरण्य गान, उद्गान तथा उह्यगान।

4. अथर्ववेद :

अथर्ववेद का परिचय :

अथर्व शब्द यह गति या चेष्टा का अर्थ रखनेवाली धातु पर्व से निष्पन्न है। इसीलिए गति या चेष्टा के अभाववाली स्थिति (न = अ) को अथर्व कहते हैं। इसका आशय इस तरह लिया जाता है कि स्थिरता या चित्तवृत्तियों के निरोधरूप योग इत्यादि का उपदेश होने से इसे अथर्ववेद कहा जाता है। कुछ लोग ऐसा मानते हैं कि अथर्व यह ऋषि का नाम है। अथर्व नामक ऋषि द्वारा इन मंत्रों का दर्शन किए जाने से इस

वेद को 'अथर्वाङ्गिरस' भी कहते हैं। हालांकि आरंभ में 'वेदत्रयी' में उसे स्थान नहीं मिला था, परन्तु उसकी महत्ता तथा उपयोगिता का पता चलने पर उसे अन्य तीन वेदों की तरह ही गौरव प्राप्त हुआ।

अथर्ववेद का आकार :

अथर्ववेद में बीस कांड हैं। प्रत्येक कांड में सूक्तों की संख्या कम-अधिक है। इन सूक्तों की कुल संख्या 736 है। कुल मिलाकर लगभग 6000 मंत्र इस वेद में समाहित है। अथर्ववेद की नौ शाखाएँ थीं। आज तो मात्र दो ही शाखाएँ।

उपलब्ध हैं :

• शौनक और
• पिप्पलाद।

अथर्ववेद - विषय :

अथर्ववेद में विविध रोगों से निवृत्ति उपाय, कृषि एवं पशुपालन, राज्यशासन, ब्रह्मविद्या, मातृभूमि गौरव, पितृमेघ तथा यज्ञादि के विधान की बातें मुख्य हैं। इस वेद में पृथ्वीसूक्त, कालसूक्त, ब्रह्मचर्यसूक्त, विवाहसूक्त, मधुविद्यासूक्त इत्यादि महत्त्वपूर्ण सूक्त के विषयों का सामान्य जनजीवन के साथ प्रगाढ़ संबंध है, इसीलिए इस वेद में भी जाना जाता है।

अथर्ववेद की सूक्तियाँ

अनुव्रतः पितुः पुत्रो मात्रा भवतु संमनाः। अथर्ववेद, काण्ड 3, सूक्त 30, मन्त्र 2
पुत्र वह है जो पिता के व्रतों का पालन करे और माता के मनोनुकूल बने।

शतहस्त समाहर सहस्रहस्त सं किर। अथर्व. 3. 24.4
हे मनुष्य सैकड़ों हाथों से एकत्र कर और हजारों हाथ से बाँट।

माता भूमिः पुत्रोऽहं पृथिव्याः। अथर्व. 12. 1. 12
पृथ्वी मेरी माता है और मैं पृथ्वी का पुत्र हूँ।

उपनिषद

उपनिषद् (स्त्रीलिंग) शब्द उप + नि + सद् धातु से बना है। इसलिए उसका अर्थ 'गुरु के आसपास निष्ठापूर्वक बैठकर प्राप्त किया जानेवाला परमतत्त्व का ज्ञान' होता है। वैदिक साहित्य में सबसे अंत में आने के कारण उपनिषद साहित्य 'वेदांत' के रूप में भी पहचाना जाता है। उपनिषदों का चिंतन मुख्यतः जीव, जगत और जगदीश (ईश्वर) या ब्रह्म के विषय में है। इसी कारण उपनिषदों को 'ब्रह्मविद्या' भी कहते हैं।

उपनिषदों की संख्या 200 से भी अधिक है। फिर भी इनमें से 108 उपनिषदों को सारभूत उपनिषद माना जाता है। इन सारभूत उपनिषदों में भी महत्त्वपूर्ण और अतिप्रसिद्ध उपनिषद तो मात्र दस ही हैं, जो निम्नानुसार हैं :

ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरिः।
ऐतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं दश।।

अर्थात् ईशावस्य, केन, कठ, प्रश्न, मुण्डक, माण्डूक्य, तैत्तिरीय, ऐतरेयः, छान्दोग्य और बृहदारण्यक - ये दस उपनिषद (मुख्य)

कुछ विद्वान इन मुख्य उपनिषदों में एक अन्य - श्वेताश्वतर उपनिषद का भी समावेश करते हैं। इस तरह मुख्य उपनिषदों की संख्या ग्यारह हो जाती है। आदि शंकराचार्य सहित अनेक आचार्यों ने उन पर सुंदर भाष्य लिखे हैं।

अति प्राचीन गिने जानेवाले इन उपनिषदों का रचनाकाल ई.स.पूर्व 1500 से आरंभ करके भगवान बुद्ध के जन्म के पूर्व यानी कि ई.स. पूर्व 700 तक माना जाता है।।

यम-नचिकेता, याज्ञवल्क्य-मैत्रेयी, उद्दालक-आरुणि-श्वेतकेतु आदि के संवादों के माध्यम से उपनिषद गहनतम सत्यों को सरलतम रीति से प्रस्तुत करते हैं। उपनिषदों में परमात्मा, जीवात्मा, जगत का स्वरूप, मोक्ष की स्थिति तथा उसकी प्राप्ति के साधन, सृष्टि की उत्पत्ति आदि विषयों का समावेश होता है। उपनिषदों का केन्द्रीय सिद्धांत है 'एकेन विज्ञातेन सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवति। (अर्थात् एक ब्रह्म को जान लेने से यह सब कुछ ही लिया जाता है।)

विश्व में तत्त्वचिंतन की दृष्टि से उपनिषद श्रेष्ठ हैं। यह साहित्य समस्त विश्व को शांति के मार्ग पर खींच ले जानेवाला है। विश्व की सभी समस्याओं के वास्तविक समाधान उपनिषदों के तत्त्वज्ञान में हैं।

कठोपनिषद

इस उपनिषद में कृष्ण यजुर्वेद की कठ शाखा का ही समावेश होता है। नचिकेता तथा यमराज के बीच संवाद के द्वारा ब्रह्मविद्या का उपदेश इस उपनिषद की विषयवस्तु है। यमराज नचिकेता को तीन वरदान माँगने के लिए कहते हैं। नचिकेता बालक है तथापि महाज्ञानी है। बूढ़ी गायों को दान में देकर पुण्य कमाने की कामना करनेवाला उसका पिता 'संसारी जीवात्मा' का प्रतीक है। जब कि नचिकेता मोह से मुक्त है। पिता के क्रोध से यमराज के पास गया नचिकेता यमराज को प्रसन्न करके ब्रह्मज्ञान प्राप्त करता है।

कठोपनिषद की यह कथा अत्यंत प्रभावशाली है। इसके मंत्रों में भी बालक जैसी मुग्धता, सरलता और तरलता है।

महाकवि भास

प्रस्तावना

कवि कुलगुरु कालिदास ने अपने प्रथम नाटक 'मालविकाग्निमित्रम्' में 'प्रथितयशसां भास-कविपुत्र-सौमिल्लकादीनाम्....।' कहकर प्रथितयश नाटककार के रूप में भास का उल्लेख किया है। उसके बाद ई.स. की लगभग चौदहवीं सदी तक संस्कृत साहित्य के अनेक ग्रंथों में भास तथा उनके द्वारा रचित 'स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्' का उल्लेख होता है। परन्तु किसी कारणवश उनकी यह संपूर्ण कृति प्रचलन से बाहर निकल गई थी।

परिणामस्वरुप लोगों का भास के रूपकों के नाम से तो परिचय था, परन्तु उनके ग्रंथों का परिचय संस्कृत जगत को न था। ई.स. 1912 से प्रो. टी. गणपतिशास्त्री को मलयालम लिपि में ताड़पत्र पर भास के (हस्तलिखित) रूपकों की पांडुलिपि मिली। उस पर से देवनागरी में संपादित करके उन्होंने उन ग्रंथों को भास नाटकचक्र नाम से प्रकाशित कराया, तब से लुप्त हो चुके ... भास के ये तेरह रूपक संस्कृत जगत में पुनः प्रचलित हुए हैं।

भास अत्यंत प्राचीन नाटककार हैं। उनका जीवनकाल ई.स. पूर्व चौथी या तीसरी शताब्दी मानी जाती है। नाटकों के आंतरिक मूल्यांकन से लगता है कि वह विष्णुभक्त रहे होंगे, वेद, इतिहास, पुराणों तथा शासन के ज्ञाता रहे होंगे, प्रकृति के सूक्ष्म निरीक्षक तथा मानव स्वभाव के अध्येता रहे होंगे। भास की कृतियाँ नीचे दिए गए 13 रूपकों को भास की कृतियों के रूप में स्वीकृत किया गया है। इन सभी कृतियों को विषयवस्तु के आधार पर पाँच विभागों में वर्गीकृत किया गया है, जो निम्नानुसार हैं :

(क) महाभारत के कथानक पर आधारित रूपक

• दूतवाक्यम्
• दूतघटोत्कचम्
• उरुभंगम्
• पंचरात्रम्
• कर्णभारम् और
• मध्यमव्यायोग

(ख) रामायण के कथानक पर आधारित रूपक

• प्रतिमा नाटकम् और
• अभिषेक नाटकम्

(ग) उदयन कथा पर आधारित रूपक

• प्रतिज्ञायौगन्धरायणम् तथा
• स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्

(घ) लोककथा पर आधारित रूपक

• अविमारक
• चारुदत्तम्

(च) कृष्णचरित पर आधारित रूपक

• बालचरितम्

अब, हम इन तेरह रचनाओं का संक्षिप्त परिचय प्राप्त करेंगे।

1. दूतवाक्यम्

यह महाभारत के कथानक पर आधारित एकांकी है। इसमें श्रीकृष्ण स्वयं पांडवों के दूत के रूप में कौरवों के पास जाते हैं। दूत की सलाह के वचनों-वाक्यों पर से इस नाटक को दूतवाक्यम् नाम मिला है।

पांडवों का दूत बनकर श्रीकृष्ण दुर्योधन के पास पहुँचते हैं। श्रीकृष्ण का पुरुषोत्तम नारायण के रूप में परिचय देता है। इससे कुपित होकर दुर्योधन सभी को सभा में खड़ा न होकर कृष्ण का अपमान करने की सलाह देता है। कृष्ण के आगमन के साथ ही सभी राजा खड़े हो जाते हैं। दुर्योधन थोड़ा व्यग्र हो उठता है। श्रीकृष्ण पांडवों के लिए पैतृक अधिकार के अनुसार भाग देने का प्रस्ताव रखते हैं। श्रीकृष्ण और दुर्योधन के बीच उग्र वाग्युद्ध होता है। दुर्योधन को दंडित करने के लिए श्रीकृष्ण विराट स्वरूप धारण करके सुदर्शनचक्र धारण करते हैं। अंत में श्रीकृष्ण सभा त्याग करते हैं।

इस एकांकी में राजनीति की चर्चा है। इस नाटक में दुर्योधन का एकपात्रीय स्वरूप ध्यानाकर्षक है। द्रौपदी वस्त्राहरण का चित्रपट प्रस्तुत करने का प्रयोग मौलिक है। आकाशभासित वाणी का प्रयोग नाट्यकला की विशिष्टता दर्शाता है। कवि ने शस्त्रों को रंगमंच पर संदेह उपस्थित करके सुंदर चित्रात्मक दृश्य निर्मित किया है।

2. दूतघटोत्कचम्

कवि कल्पना के अनुसार इस एकांकी में भीम तथा हिडिम्बा का पुत्र, श्रीकृष्ण का दूत बनकर उनका संदेश कौरवों को देता है। इसलिए इस नाटक का नाम 'दूतघटोत्कचम्' है।

एकांकी के आरंभ में सैनिक प्रवेश करके धृतराष्ट्र को बताता है कि कौरवों द्वारा अभिमन्यु की निर्दय हत्या हुई है। धृतराष्ट्र को आघात लगता है और वह इसके लिए निमित्त बने जयद्रथ के अंत की भविष्यवाणी करते हैं। जयद्रथ की पत्नी दुःशला विलाप करती है।

अभिमन्यु की मृत्यु से आनंदित हुए दुर्योधन, दुःशासन और शकुनि धृतराष्ट्र को प्रणाम करने जाते हैं किन्तु धृतराष्ट्र आशीर्वचन नहीं देते। दुर्योधन पिता से विवाद करता है। इतने में यही सुनाई पड़ा कि अर्जुन ने जयद्रथ के वध की प्रतिज्ञा की है। दुर्योधन उसके विरुद्ध जयद्रथ की रक्षा करने का निर्णय करता है।

श्रीकृष्ण की तरफ से दूत के रूप में आया घटोत्कच अपने पितामह को उनका संदेश देता है कि अर्जुन अपने एक पुत्र की मृत्यु से विलाप कर रहे हैं तो सौ पुत्रों की मृत्यु से उनकी (धृतराष्ट्र की) क्या दशा होगी ? साथ ही घटोत्कच कहता है कि कल सूर्य के आगमन के साथ ही अर्जुन काल बनकर उन पर टूट पड़ेगा।

यह एकांकी स्वयंकल्पित नवसृजन है। यहाँ महाभारत के अल्प परिचित घटोत्कच के पात्र को उभारा गया है। दुर्योधन के अहंकार और एक राजा के रूप में उसकी खुमारी का प्रभावपूर्ण निरूपण हुआ है। यहाँ वीररस का वर्णन ऐसा है जो भावुक को स्पर्श कर जाए।

3. ऊरुभङ्गम्

इस एकांकी में भीम गदा युद्ध में दुर्योधन की जंघा जोडते हैं। कथा वस्तु के रूप में यह प्रसंग केन्द्रीय होने से कृति का नाम 'ऊरुभंगम्' रखा गया है। कथा का मुख्यपात्र दुर्योधन है। महाभारत के प्रसंग पर आधारित यह दुःखांत एकांकी है। महाभारत का युद्ध अठारह दिन चला था, जिसमें 99 कौरवों का नाश हुआ था। एकमात्र दुर्योधन जीवित बचा था। दुर्योधन और भीम के बीच गदायुद्ध आरंभ होता है।

श्रीकृष्ण भीम को दुर्योधन की जंघा पर प्रहार करने का संकेत करते है। उसके अनुसार भीम गदा से दुर्योधन की जंघा पर मरणांतक प्रहार करता है, जिससे भीम गदायुद्ध के नियमों का उल्लंघन करता है। दुर्योधन का ऊरु (जंघा) भंग होता है और वह नीचे गिरता है। अंध राजा धृतराष्ट्र रणभूमि पर पहुँचते हैं। वे सभी विलाप करते हैं। वीर दुर्योधन की मृत्यु के साथ एकांकी करुणांतिका में परिणामित होता है।

ऊरुभंग का मुख्य रस करुण है जो वीररस के निरूपण से अधिक प्रगाढ़ बना है। रंगमंच पर नायक की मृत्यु दिखलाई गई है। यहाँ भरत के नाट्यशास्त्र के नियम का उल्लंघन हुआ है। यह नाटक संस्कृत साहित्य में 'करुणांतिका' (Tragedy) का विरल उदाहरण है। परिवार से मिलने का यहाँ हृदय विदारक वर्णन है। इस एकांकी में दुर्योधन के पात्र का उदात्तीकरण किया है।

4. पञ्चरात्रम्

महाभारत पर आधारित इस नाटक में दुर्योधन द्वारा द्रोण को पाँच रात्रियों की मुद्दत दी जाती है। कि यदि वे इस अवधि में पांडवों के बारे में समाचार लाएँगे तो दुर्योधन राज्य में से पांडवों का हिस्सा उनको सौंप देगा। इसी कारण नाटक को 'पंचरात्र' नाम मिला है। नाटक के आरंभ में दुर्योधन द्वारा किए गए भव्य यज्ञ की प्रशंसा है। द्रोण दक्षिणा के रूप में राज्य का आधा हिस्सा पांडवों को देने के लिए कहते हैं और दुर्योधन पाँच रात्रियों में पांडवों का समाचार लाने की शर्त के साथ उस बात को स्वीकार करता है।

पाँच रात में पांडवों की जानकारी मिलती है। दुर्योधन आधा राज्य पांडवों को देने की द्रोण की आज्ञा को स्वीकार करता है। यह बात मूल महाभारत की कथावस्तु में नहीं है। यहाँ नाटककार ने मूल कथावस्तु से विपरीत निरूपण किया है।

नाट्यकार ने अपनी कल्पना से नवीन प्रसंगों की उद्भावना करके प्रभावशाली कृति का सर्जन किया है। इस नाटक में भी दुर्योधन के पात्र का उदात्तीकरण किया गया है। मूल महाभारत में युद्ध के बिना सूई की नोक के बराबर भी जमीन नहीं देने की बात कहनेवाला दुर्योधन यहाँ गुरु की आज्ञा से आधा राज्य दे देता है। भास की यह रूपक रचना अत्यंत सुंदर है।

5. कर्णभारम्

यह एकांकी महाभारत के कथानक पर आधारित है। कर्ण को केन्द्र में रखकर उसकी दान वीरता को उभारनेवाली यह सुंदर एकांकी है। कर्णभार शीर्षक का भिन्न-भिन्न प्रकार से अर्थघटन किया जा सकता है। कुछ लोगों के मतानुसार कर्ण का कवच-कुंडल उसका भार बनते हैं, तो कुछ लोग कर्ण को सौंपी गई सेनापति की जवाबदारी को उसका भार मानते हैं।

कृति के आरंभ में शल्यराज के साथ रथ में बैठकर कर्ण जब युद्धभूमि में प्रवेश करता है उस समय उसका मन निराशा से भरा हुआ है। स्वयं ब्राह्मण न होने पर भी 'ब्राह्मण हूँ' - कहकर उसने परशुराम से विद्या सीखी थी। उनके शाप के कारण उसकी शस्त्र विद्या निष्फल जानेवाली है इसका उसे स्मरण होता है। इतने में ब्राह्मण के वेश में इन्द्र आते हैं और बड़े दान की माँग करते हैं। कर्ण उन्हें गाय, घोड़ा, हाथी, सोना जैसे अनेक प्रकार के दान देने को तैयार होता है किन्तु ब्राह्मण के वेश में आए इंद्र उन्हें लेने से मना करते हैं। अंत में कर्ण देने की बात करता है।

ब्राह्मण तुरंत स्वीकार कर लेता है। शल्य कर्ण को रोकता है। कर्ण भी यह समझता है कि यह इन्द्र की चाल है। फिर भी वह कवच-कुंडल का दान कर देता है। पश्चाताप दग्ध इन्द्र देवदूत द्वारा विमला नामक शक्ति भेजता है। इस शक्ति द्वारा पांडवों में से किसी एक पुरुष का वध कर्ण कर सकता है। इतना सब घटित होने के बाद भी कर्ण हार नहीं मानता और युद्ध के लिए तैयार होता है। नाटक में कर्ण के पात्र का खूब सुंदर आलेखन हुआ है। वह केवल शल्य की ही नहीं बल्कि हम सबकी सहानुभूति का अधिकारी बनता है।।

6. मध्यमव्यायोगः

महाभारत के कथानक पर आश्रित यह व्यायोग प्रकार की एकांकी है। भीम पांडवों में मध्यम है। यहाँ उनका हिडिम्बा के साथ संयोग होने से 'मध्यम व्यायोग' शीर्षक उचित है। अथवा भीम और ब्राह्मण के मझले पुत्र - ऐसे दो मझलों का मिलाप होने से यह शीर्षक दिया गया है।

नाटक के मुख्य दृश्य में घटोत्कच के त्रास से भयभीत हुए ब्राह्मण का वर्णन है। घटोत्कच थोड़ी द्विधा में है, एक और माता के भोजन के लिए एक व्यक्ति को ले जाने की माता की आज्ञा है और दूसरी तरफ ब्राह्मणों के प्रति उसका आदरभाव। अंत में माता की आज्ञा का पालन करने का निश्चय करता है। वह ब्राह्मण कुटुंब में से किसी एक को अपने साथ आने के लिए कहता है। चर्चा के बाद मध्यम पुत्र को भेजने का निश्चय होता है।

पानी पीने गए मझले ब्राह्मण को घटोत्कच जोर से पुकारता है। उसे सुनकर भीमसेन स्वयं मध्यम के रूप में उपस्थित होते हैं। कुटुंब को बचाने के लिए ब्राह्मण भीमसेन से विनती करता है। भीम घटोत्कच को अपने पुत्र के रूप में पहचानते हैं और बल प्रयोग द्वारा अपने को ले जाने के लिए उससे कहते हैं। बल तथा मायावी शक्ति के प्रयोग निष्फल होते हैं। अंत में भीमसेन स्वयं घटोत्कच की माता के पास जाते हैं। हिडिम्बा भीमसेन को पहचान लेती है। इस तरह, हिडिम्बाभीमसेन का मिलन होता है। ब्राह्मण परिवार खुशी से वहाँ से प्रस्थान करता है।

भीम और हिडिम्बा के मिलन की बात महाभारत में नहीं है। भास ने अपनी कवि प्रतिभा से इस मौलिक रूपक का सृजन किया है। यहाँ घटोत्कच के पात्र के माध्यम से मातृभक्ति की महिमा की गई है और राक्षसी होने पर भी हिडिम्बा में मानवीय गुणों का आलेखन किया है।

7. प्रतिमानाटकम्

यह रामायण की कथा पर आधारित सात अंकों का नाटक है। ननिहाल से वापस आकर भरत नगर के बाहर प्रतिमागृह में स्वर्गीय पूर्वजों के साथ महाराज दशरथ की प्रतिमा देखते हैं, तब पिता के मरने का पता चलता है। इसी कारण नाटक का नाम 'प्रतिमानाटक' रखा गया है।

इस नाटक में राम के वनगमन से लेकर उनके राज्यभिषेक तक की घटनाओं का निरूपण है। राज्याभिषेक के बदले सीतालक्ष्मण के साथ राम वनगमन की तैयारी करते हैं और दशरथ की मृत्यु होती है। दशरथ अस्वस्थ है - ऐसा समाचार देकर भरत को ननिहाल से वापस बुलाया गया है। नगर के बाहर प्रतिमागृह में पूर्वजों के साथ पिता की प्रतिमा देखकर चिंतातुर भरत पिता की मृत्यु के लिए कारणभूत माता कैकेयी से मिलना टाल देते हैं। राम को उनकी गद्दी वापस सौंपने के लिए भरत वन में जाते हैं और राम - भरत का मिलन होता है। भरत राम की आज्ञा मानकर उनकी पादुका लेकर अयोध्या लौट आते हैं।

वन में रह रहे राम पिता के श्राद्ध के बारे में चिंतित हैं। ब्राह्मण वेशधारी रावण राम को यह समझाता है कि कांचनपार्श्वमृग से उत्तम श्राद्ध होता है। इतने में ही वहाँ उपस्थित हुए कांचन पार्श्वमृग को लेने हेतु राम उसका पीछा करते हैं। लक्ष्मण कुलपति को लेने के लिए बाहर गए हुए हैं, इससे अकेली पड़ गई सीता का रावण अपहरण करता है। अयोध्या में भरत को सीता के अपहरण का पता चलता है। इन सबके लिए कैकेयी को दूषित माननेवाले भरत से कैकेयी श्रवण के माता-पिता द्वारा दिए गए शाप की बात करती है। तदनुसार पुत्र वियोग से दशरथ की मृत्यु निश्चित ही थी। भरत तो दूर ही था।

राम के वियोग, राम की मृत्यु या लम्बे समय के लिए दूर जाने से भी हो, इसलिए दशरथ से राम के वनगमन की माँग की। घबराहट में चौदह दिन के बदले चौदह वर्ष बोला गया। कैकेयी के इस स्पष्टता से भरत उसे क्षमा कर देते हैं। दो तपस्वियों के संवाद द्वारा रावण-वध, विभीषण को लंका का राज्य देने, सीता की अग्नि परीक्षा आदि घटनाओं का निर्देश होता है। राम के राज्याभिषेक के साथ यह नाटक समाप्त होता है।

इस नाटक में प्रतिमागृह का प्रसंग भास की मौलिक कल्पना है। यहाँ कैकेयी के पात्र का उदात्तीकरण किया गया है। कैकेयी द्वारा वचन माँगे जाने के पीछे का रहस्य - यह भास की अपनी कल्पना है।

8. अभिषेकनाटकम्

रामायण पर आधारित इस नाटक में कुल छः अंक हैं। यहाँ सुग्रीव, विभीषण और राम - इन तीन व्यक्तियों के राज्याभिषेक की बात होने से 'अभिषेक नाटकम्' शीर्षक दिया गया है।

नाटक की कथावस्तु के अनुसार सुग्रीव और राम परस्पर सहायता के लिए संधि करते हैं। सुग्रीव बाली को युद्ध के लिए ललकारता है। दरम्यान राम के बाण से बाली की मृत्यु होती है, सुग्रीव का राज्याभिषेक होता है।

सीता को खोजने के लिए हनुमान लंका की ओर प्रयाण करते हैं। वहाँ लंका के उपवन में रावण की बातों के आधार पर सीता को पहचान लेते हैं। सीता का रावण द्वारा अपमान होते देख हनुमान गुस्सा होते हैं। वह सीता से मिलते हैं और राम की अवस्था का निवेदन करते हैं। सीता भी अपनी अवस्था राम को बताने के लिए उनसे कहती हैं। राम तथा वानर लंका की ओर प्रयाण करते हैं। समुद्र विभाजित होकर उन्हें मार्ग देता है। युद्ध में इंद्रजीत सहित अनेक राक्षसों के विनाश के बाद अंत में रावण स्वयं युद्ध के लिए प्रयाण करता है। राम-रावण में भयंकर युद्ध राम रावण का वध करते हैं और विभीषण को राज्य सौंपते हैं।

रावण के वध के बाद सीता की अग्निशुद्धि और अंत में राज्यभिषेक होता है।

9. प्रतिज्ञायौगन्धरायणम्

उदयनकथा पर आधारित इस चार अंकी नाटक में वत्सराज उदयन का मंत्री यौगन्धरायण, उदयन को उज्जयिनी के कारागार से छुड़ाने की दो बार प्रतिज्ञा करता है।

उज्जयिनी का राजा प्रद्योत महासेन अपनी पुत्री वासवदत्ता का विवाह उदयन से करना चाहता था इसलिए उसे किसी भी तरह से पकड़कर नगर में लाना चाहता था। इसी बीच राजा उदयन का संदेश लेकर आया। उसका निजी सेवक बतलाता है कि उदयन हाथी के षडयंत्र में फँस गया है और उसे राजबंदी बनाया गया है। यौगन्धरायण प्रद्योत के छल का बदला लेने की प्रतिज्ञा करता है। - उदयन के पास से ले ली गई घोषवती वीणा वासवदत्ता को भेंट दी गई है। उदयन को छुड़ाने के बहाने जब उदयन को मुक्त किया जाएगा तब उसे भगा ले जाने की योजना यौगंधरायण ने बनाई थी।

राजा के साथ वासवदत्ता को भी ले जाने की योजना उसने सोच रखी थी। उदयन के भद्रवती हाथी पर भाग जाने का समाचार चारों ओर फैल जाता है। यौगंधरायण उदयन के पीछे पड़ी प्रद्योत की सेना को रोकता है।

अंत में वह पकड़ा जाता है। प्रद्योत महासेन और अंगारवती उदयन तथा वासवदत्ता को गांधर्व विवाह की अनुमति देते हैं।

10. स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्

इस' नाटक के पाँचवे अंक में राजा उदयन को वासवदत्ता का स्वप्न आता है। इस दृश्य के आधार पर नाटक का शीर्षक 'स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्' रखा गया है।।

इस नाटक को भास की सर्वोत्तम कृति मानते हुए विद्वानों ने इस पर प्रशंसा के पुष्प बरसाये हैं।

वेशपरिवर्तन करके वासवदत्ता और यौगंधरायण तपोवन में से गुजर रहे थे तभी वहाँ पद्मावती आ जाती है। तपस्वी के वेश में रहा यौगंधरायण, वासवदत्ता का परिचय अपनी अवन्तिका नामक बहन के रूप में करवाकर उसे पद्मावती के पास अपनी अमानत के रूप में रखने की इच्छा व्यक्त करता है। पद्मावती उसे स्वीकार करती है। तपोवन में एक ब्रह्मचारी लावण्यक दहन के प्रसंग का वर्णन करता है।

वासवदत्ता के महल में जल जाने की बात से राजा दुःखी होता है। पद्मावती के विवाह की बात छिड़ती है और उदयन के साथ विवाह निश्चित होता है। पद्मावती के विवाह की माला गूंथने का काम भी वासवदत्ता के सिर आता है। चौथे अंक में राजा और विदूषक के बीच की बातचीत में वासवदत्ता के प्रति राजा का प्रेम व्यक्त होता है। छिपकर बातें सुन रही वासवदत्ता को अत्यंत आनंद होता है।

पाँच अंक में उदयन को वासवदत्ता का स्वप्न आता है, जिसमें उदयन वासवदत्ता को मनाने का प्रयत्न कर रहा है। उसी दरम्यान पलंग पर से नीचे लटक रहे राजा के हाथ को वासवदत्ता धीरे से पलंग पर रखकर चली जाती है.। उसके स्पर्श से राजा जाग जाता है, वासवदत्ता को पकड़ने दौड़ता है, पर उसका पुरुषार्थ व्यर्थ जाता है। राजा विदूषक के सम्मुख वासवदत्ता के जीवित होने की शंका व्यक्त करता है, परन्तु वह उसे मानने को तैयार नहीं है।

घोषवती वीणा का प्रसंग पुनः वासवदत्ता की याद को ताजा करता है। कंचुकी चित्रफलक लाती है, जिसमें वासवदत्ता है। उसे देखकर पद्मावती सुखद आश्चर्य अनुभव करती है। वह अंत:पुर में ऐसे ही चेहरेवाली एक स्त्री के होने की बात कहती है। वासवदत्ता राजदरबार में उपस्थित होती है।

यौगंधरायण पद्मावती से अपनी अमानत वापस माँगता है। अंत में यौगंधरायण अपना असली रूप प्रकट करके राजा को पूरी योजना समझाता है। वासवदत्ता का भी मूल स्वरूप प्रकट होता है और इस तरह नाटक सुखांत बन जाता है।

Vasavdatta has it secretly and feels very happy. In the fifth act Udayan dreams of Vasavdatta and in dream he tries to convince her. Meanwhile Vasavdatta taking the hanging hand of Udayan who was on the cot puts it on the cot. The king wakes up with her touch, runs to chase her but he fails. The king expresses his doubt before a jester about Vasavdatta being alive.

11. अविमारकम्:

In this seven-act play based on a folktale there is a love-story of Vishnusen and Kurangi.

In this play a prince named Vishnusen kills a demon who takes the form of a sheep. The title of the play is based on this.

A young man named Anjangiri saves Kurangi the daughter of the king Kuntibhoj, from the attack of an elephant when she was taking a leisurely strall in her garden. In this situation both get attracted towards each other. The king receives the news of rescue He starts thinking about his daughter who has come to the marraiagable age.

Kurangi and that young man keeps on meeting with the help of her wet-nurse not ready to believe. The event of Ghoshwati refreshes the memory of Vasavdatta, 'Kanchuki' servent of a herem brings a picture of Vasavdatta. Padmavati feels much surprised seeing it. She talks about a woman of very similar face being in harem.

Then Vasavdatta presents herself in the kingly court. Youngdharayan asks Padmavati to return his deposit. At last Yougandhrayan asks Padmavati to return his deposit. At last Yougandrayan reveling his true self explains his plan to the king. Vasavdatta also presents herself in her true form and the play ends with a happy note.

The king realises the love growing fast between Kurangi and Avimarak. He runs away with a feaer of being caught and attempts to commit suicide. He then getting a mysterious ring from a learned person tries to enter the harem (अन्तःपुर) developing confidence of others in him with the effects of the ring Kurangi suffering from separation tries to end her life committing suicide but Avimarak comes there at that time and saves Kuranji. Both unite in the end.

12. चारुदतम्:

This four-act play is based on a folk-tale. There is a love story of Vanik (bania) Charudatta and a prostitute Vasantsena. The title of the place is based on the name of the hero of the play.

The main poetic sentiment of the play is 'Shrinagar'-romance The hero of the play is brahmin by birth but bania by deeds he was very rich, but giving money in donations he has became poor. The heroine Vasantsena is a famous prostitute of Ujjayini. He loves Charudatta not for his riches but for his qualities. In the play in the depiction of poverty romantic sentiment is planned-weaved. This play remained very successful in entertaining people.

The jester's conversations prompting laughter please the spectars and also have proved very helpful in furthering the story. Dialogues in the play are quite pleasing, heart touching. An important point in this play is that the heroine makes confession of her love and takes a lead to gain the love of the hero.

13. बालचरितम्:

The story weaved in this play is based on Lord Krishna's childhood events described in Harivansh and Puranas. Here the plot covers the story from the birth of Krishna to the killing of Kans in Mathura.

Here the daughter of Nand is shown dead and through this the story is given the dramatic touch. The dialogue between Nand and Vasudev is also the poet's own imagination, Krishna is said to be the seventh son of Vasudev.

In this play the heroic mood - the poetic sentiment of bravery is at the centre. Non-living weapons are brought on the stage as it is found in Dootvakya. In this play there are totally 26 male characters and more than 10 female characters. In this play Krishna is the hero, Balram is the subordinate hero Kans is the villain. With the dialogue ‘Now Vrushthiraj is established – has become famous, the play ends.'

Mahakavi Kalidas

पुरा कवीनां गणनाप्रसङ्गे कनिष्ठिकाधिष्ठितकालिदासा। अद्यापि तत्तुल्यकवेरभावात् अनामिका सार्थवती बभूव।।

This means that in olden times, when poets were counted, Kalidas was always placed on the smallest finger (the little finger) of the hand. Since then, no other poet like him has been found, making the ring finger (the second finger, meaning without a name) meaningful.

Many poetry lovers have praised Mahakavi Kalidas, making him famous as the 'Kavikulguru' in Sanskrit literature. He wrote seven works, including:

(क) Two Khandkavya or Gitikavya:

• ऋतुसंहारम्
• मेघदूतम्।

(ख) Two Mahakavya:

• रघुवंशम्
• कुमारसंभवम्।

(ग) Three Dramas:

• मालविकाग्निमित्रम्
• विक्रमोर्वशीयम्
• अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्।

In Class 11, you are expected to learn about only Kalidas's dramatic works. Therefore, only these three plays are introduced here.

Kalidas's Plays

1. Malavikagnimitram

This is the first play by Mahakavi Kalidas. Its main story involves the love affair between Malavika, a maidservant in the harem, and King Agnimitra of the Shunga dynasty.

Malavika and Agnimitra get married; however, due to her brother's defeat in war, she has to flee. After that, she enters the harem in disguise as a maidservant of Queen Dharini, Agnimitra's wife. After many ups and downs, the jester successfully arranges their meeting. Dharini arrests Malavika with her friend.

The jester uses the pretext of a snakebite to help Malavika and Agnimitra reunite. At the play's conclusion, events like Agnimitra's victory in battle, his son's triumph over the Yavanas (Greeks), and Malavika's identity as a princess are depicted. Queen Dharini herself approves the marriage of Agnimitra and Malavika.

In this play, the love story of Malavika and Agnimitra is presented in a very distinctive manner. The poet has made the play quite beautiful, drawing attention to their mutual attraction. Urvashi, who returns to heaven after performing a role as Lakshmi in one play, once mistakenly says Pururava instead of Purushottam in a dialogue. This makes Bharatmuni angry, and he curses Urvashi.

2. Vikramorvashiyam

As a result of the curse, Urvashi has to come to Earth, where she meets Pururava. Pururava's wife, Queen Aushinari, agrees to their love. Once, when Pururava and Urvashi are walking in Kumarvan, Urvashi gets angry with Pururava and leaves, turning into a creeper.

The king becomes somewhat rude, almost mad from separation from Urvashi, and searches for her, asking about her whereabouts. After many efforts, he gets her back in the form of a precious stone called Sangamaniya. Urvashi becomes the mother of a brave son, Aayu, through Pururava. She receives Lord Indra's favor to live with her husband Pururava forever. In the end, a ceremonial anointing of their son Aayu as the crown prince is performed.

This play by Mahakavi Kalidas is based on a mythological story, showcasing a subtle presentation of both union and separation (vipralambha shringara). In the fourth act, the poet's love for nature is beautifully reflected. Human feelings are wonderfully portrayed in nature.

It is believed that this play was originally a three-act drama, oscillating between Earth and heaven. The fourth act must have been added to facilitate the reunion. And then the poet must have included the fifth act for the ceremonial anointing of the crown prince.

3. Abhijnanasakuntalam

In this seven-act play, the love of Dushyant and Shakuntala is depicted. While returning from a deer hunt, King Dushyant stops by the ashram of hermit Kanva. There, he sees ashram girls watering young plants. He also spots 'Kanvkanya' Shakuntala and begins to long for her. Shakuntala was given the duty of welcoming guests.

It so happened that Dushyant had to stay at the ashram to protect a sacrifice. This laid the foundation for the growth and development of love between Shakuntala and Dushyant. Then, they both marry in a 'Gandharva vivah' ceremony. Dushyant later returns to his kingdom.

The sage Durvasa curses Shakuntala, who is lost in thoughts of Dushyant, and as a result, Dushyant forgets her. Sage Kanva learns about the 'Gandharva Vivah' through a celestial voice and sends Shakuntala off to her husband's home. Cursed Dushyant forgets Shakuntala, does not recognize her, and does not accept her. Shakuntala's mother, Menaka, takes her to the ashram of sage Maricha. A ring that had slipped from Shakuntala's finger is found by a fisherman, and that ring is sent to Dushyant by his guards.

He remembers Shakuntala as soon as he sees the ring and feels deep remorse for abandoning her. Assisted by gods, he goes to the ashram of Sage Marichi. There he meets a child, Sarvadaman, playing with a baby lion and counting its teeth. He realizes that Sarvadaman is Shakuntala's son. After Dushyant, Shakuntala, and Sarvadaman (Bharat) meet, Dushyant, blessed by the sage, returns to his kingdom with his wife and son.

Kavi Kalidas drew inspiration for this extraordinary play from the 'Shushka Sambhavparva' of the Mahabharat. But Kalidas crafted a captivating work from the basic story he found in the Mahabharat. For this reason, it is said, "Among literary works, plays are charming, and among plays, Shakuntala is the most beautiful." This highly praised play is not only famous in India but throughout the world. The German poet Goethe was so delighted after reading it that he danced with the book Shakuntal on his head.

In the fourth act of this play, the departure of a girl is depicted. At the time of Shakuntala's farewell from Tapovan, sage Kanva, Gautami, and Shakuntala's friends, as well as birds, animals, trees, and creepers-all become sentimental and emotional. This play is enjoyable from beginning to end due to its excellent innovations in the original Mahabharata story, skillfully weaving content and presenting characters.

Panchatantra

One of the many special features of Sanskrit literature is its animal stories, fables, or moral tales. These stories were composed-and orally narrated-in ancient times. Their roots are found in the Vedas and Upanishads, and it is in these traditions that animal stories (fables) are included. These stories are based on the nature of birds and animals, and their characteristics, such as peculiar habits and limitations. We find lessons here that are useful for human society in daily life. Panchatantra and Hitopadesha are the main collections of animal fables.

Pandit Vishnusharma is the writer of Panchatantra. The background of its creation is like this: (Pandit Sharma actually compiled the stories). A king named Amarshakti lived in the city of Mahilaropya in the south. He had three foolish sons. The king was very concerned about educating them and making them experts in political science.

He tried to educate them in many ways, but he did not succeed. When the king requested the pandits to make his sons clever in political science, Pandit Vishnu Sharma accepted the responsibility. He accepted the responsibility with a view to make those three sons expert in political science. He told them very interesting stories which became well-known as Panchatantra.

The title 'Panchatantra' helps us understand that there are five sections, or parts. These five sections are-

1. Mitrabhed
2. Mitraprapti
3. Sandhivigrah
4. Labdhapranash and
5. Aparikshitkarak.

1. Mitrabhed:

The separation of friends - This section provides advice to be wary of those who cause discord among friends to achieve their selfish goals. The main story here involves a bull and a lion. Two jackals introduce them (a bull and a lion) to each other, and they become good friends. One of these two jackals envies their friendship and cunningly tries to break it. Ultimately, the bull dies, and the jackal achieves a high position in the lion's eyes.

2. Mitraprapti:

The gaining of friends: In this section, stories of friendship are given. Here we find tales of four friends-a tortoise, a deer, a mouse, and a crow-and their bravery and courage. Due to the friendship developed between virtuous individuals after careful consideration, all four friends overcome difficulties very successfully and remain helpful to one another.

3. Sandhi-Vigrah:

War and peace: In this section, we find stories of war between owls and crows. So, its other title is 'Kakolukiyam'. It shows how risky it is to build friendship with someone who was previously an enemy.

4. Labdhapranash:

Loss of gains: 'Labdh' means 'gains', and 'pranash' means ruins. The loss of gains is the theme of all stories in this section. The main story here involves a monkey and a crocodile. It shows how foolish people can be tricked into giving up their possessions.

5. Aparikshita Karaka:

In this section, we have stories that tell us about the consequences of hasty actions. The experience of a barber, whose actions were done without proper thought, is described. We learn from these stories that one must not act without properly considering the situation. In Panchatantra, we find short and long stories written in simple and easy-to-understand language. The stories, though brief, are very effective. One story often leads to another.

In Panchatantra, both short and long stories are written in simple, clear, and easy-to-understand language. The stories, though brief, are also impactful. One story leads to another. These stories show a special blend of prose and poetry. The characters often use beautiful shlokas to support their views. The book sharply criticizes human traits like pride and greed, the intrigues of courtiers, and the peculiarities of women's nature, often with humor. It also presents concrete and pleasant thoughts about human life. Panchatantra is considered one of India's greatest gifts to world literature and has been translated into almost all languages because of its many unique features. It expresses more serious and pleasant ideas about life without exaggeration.

Panchatantra is India's great contribution to world literature. It has been translated and adapted into almost all languages globally. Due to its many distinctive qualities, Panchatantra is an unparalleled work.

Classical Works of Sanskrit

Sanskrit is the oldest language of India and the whole world. The source of Indian culture is preserved in this language. On one hand, excellent literary and philosophical works were composed, preserved, and became world-renowned in Sanskrit. On the other hand, many scientific works were also written here. No other ancient language in the world has as many books written in various branches of science as Sanskrit.

The Vedas are the root of all these scientific works. In the Vedas and the Vedic literature written after them, some elements of experimental science are found. After that, until the Mahabharata period, independent treatises discussing sciences like astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, Vastu Shastra, geology, anthropology, economics, and commerce were already in existence. They were widely known.

Varahamihir, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya, Charak, Madhav, Sushruta, Kautilya, and hundreds of other scholars were world-renowned experts in various scientific fields. Much of this knowledge was lost during a thousand years of conflict and severe calamities. Still, whatever remains available to us is highly valuable and provides information about the achievements of those scientists.

It is widely accepted that the concept of zero and numbers was first conceived in India. Zero holds a very significant place in counting and the use of numbers, for example, in arithmetic. With it, algebraic, geometric, analytical geometry, trigonometry, calculus, 'vector' mathematics, and many other counting and calculating methods also developed in India.

'Shulbasutras' were composed about three thousand years ago. We find many important principles of arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, and linear measurement in the books considered to be parts of 'Kalpasutras'. The creators of these 'sutras' or formulas were teachers like Bodhayana, Apastamba, Katyayana, Manava, Maitrayana, Varaha, and Hiranyaksha.

Thus, mathematics, which grew from the time of the Vedas, was further developed by many mathematicians like Aryabhatta (first), Bhaskaracharya (first), Brahmagupta, Mahavira, Aryabhatta (second), Shridharacharya, Shripati, Bhaskaracharya (second), and Narayana.

In ancient times, mathematics was composed in the style of 'Sutras'. It later developed into analytical prose. Among such books available today, 'Aryabhattiyam' by Aryabhatta (first) is prominent. Before this, five principles-Brahma, Vasistha, Pitamaha, etc.-were popular. But traditionally, it is believed that these are not human works. Consequently, 'Aryabhattiyam' is considered the oldest among human-authored mathematical texts. No other book older than it is available.

There are four chapters in Aryabhattiyam. It contains a total of one hundred and twenty 'shlokas' or verses. The first twenty are in the 'Giti' meter, so the first section is called 'Dashgitika'. In the other section, one hundred and eight shlokas are in the 'Arya' meter. Therefore, this section is called 'Aryashtashata'. One shloka contains a 'mangalacharan', a prayer sung at the beginning of an auspicious event or a book, and the other shloka defines the terminology of numbers.

It is said that the great mathematician Aryabhatta composed this book at the age of 23.

In this book by Aryabhatta, astrology is said to be a very useful mathematical calculation at the beginning. After that, there are three 'padas' or chapters: Ganitapada, Kalkriyapada, and Golapada. It is said that in Ganitapada, we find subjects of pure mathematics like arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. The other 'padas' or chapters deal with astronomy.

Another ancient book of mathematics is 'Brahmasphutasiddhanta' by Brahmagupta. He was a Shrimali Brahmin and lived in Bhinmal, Rajasthan.

Then comes in rank 'Siddhanta Shiromani', a book of mathematics with four parts. Those famous parts are Lilavati, Algebra, Grahaganita, and Goladhyaya. We find the mention of the principle of Earth's gravitation in the Lilavati part of the book.

On one hand, the books of mathematics, as part of astronomy (which is considered a part of the Veda), were composed. On the other hand, books about the four main goals of human life, namely wealth, were also written during ancient times. Still, the word 'Arthashastra' used here does not have the same meaning as it does today. 'Arthashastra' in Sanskrit is the 'Shastra' (science) covering husbandry, agriculture, trade, and commerce, meaning that 'Arthashastra' holds true today. Moreover, in this 'Shastra', only the science of politics is included.

A very famous book on Arthashastra in Sanskrit is Kautilya's 'Arthashastra', and this work is the final authority in that subject. Acharya Kautilya's other famous names are Chanakya, Vishnugupta, etc. This is the most famous and supreme work available in Arthashastra.

The book Arthashastra is divided into fifteen titles, and all of them are further divided into three sections. In the first section, there are two titles: 'Vinayadhikarika' and 'Adhyakshaprachar'. This section mainly discusses the officials of the kingdom.

In the second section, five titles are very useful for discussing state administration. In the third section, there are eight titles discussing techniques and strategies for victory over enemies. Books on Arthashastra were written by Manu, Brihaspati, Shukra, Vishalaksha, Parashara, Narada, Bhishma, Uddhava, and Indra before the Arthashastra by Chanakya-Kautilya.

Introduction:

Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit literature is divided into two sections:

• Vedic literature and
• Cultured literature.

The primary works of Vedic literature are Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda-these are the four Vedas. They are also called 'Samhitas'. Next to these are 'Shatpath' and 'Brahmanas', composed to give detailed explanations of those Samhitas. After that, works like Aitareya, Aranyakas, and Ishavasya were created. These are all known as Upanishads, and then six Vedangas-Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda, and Jyotisha-were composed to preserve the Vedas. Lastly, Sankhya Yoga, Nyaya Vaisheshika, and Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa-the six branches of Vedas-are also included in Vedic literature.

Vedic literature, as we observed above, starts with Vedic Samhitas. There are four Samhitas of the Veda: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. According to Indian tradition, these Vedic Samhitas are not the works of any human being. God himself revealed the Vedic Samhitas to the sages and seers who had become pure through penance. As God has no beginning and no end, these Vedas, which are the source of divine knowledge, are also endless and eternal, meaning immortal. Those who were blessed with the light of the Vedas are called 'mantradrashta' or 'visionaries of Vedas'. The names of Rishis and seers are linked to their respective 'mantras'.

According to Indian tradition, the period when the Vedas manifested is the period of the universe's beginning. Scholars worldwide believe that the Rigveda is the oldest book. This provides testimony that Vedic literature is the most ancient literature.

Meaning of Veda:

The root form of the word 'Veda' is 'Vid', which has many meanings like-to know, to receive, to think, and to consider. Considering all these meanings, it seems the word 'Veda' has different interpretations. For example, it is by which everyone can know, obtain, think, and become the truth-God and a scholar. And it is simply called 'Veda'.

Synonyms of Veda:

Different names are given to the Vedas for various reasons. For example, Vedas are called 'Amnay' or 'Agam' as it is believed that the Veda is the original source of different scriptures-religious books. Veda is also called 'Shruti'; 'Shrutis' are considered to have been heard and passed down by sages, preserved by listening. They are called 'Shrutis'. In the beginning, there were principally only three Vedas-Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Samaveda, so they are called 'Tray' or 'Vedatrayi'. Thus, these Vedas are referred to by different names on various occasions.

1. Rigveda:

The subject of Rigveda is considered the first among four Vedasamhitas. It is the oldest Veda. The word 'ऋच्' or 'ऋचा' is the root word of 'ऋक्'. The shloka that prays to God according to Vedic tradition is called 'ऋच्' or 'ऋचा'. Rigvedic mantras contain prayers for Gods like Agni, Indra, Varuna, and Parjanya.

Structure of Rigveda:

There are more than 10,000 'mantras' in Rigveda, organized into ten books known as 'mandalas'. There are many hymns in each mandala. The total number of 'Suktas' (hymns) in Rigveda is 1028, and the total number of verses in Rigveda is 10,552. In every 'sukta', there is more than one verse. There are ten branches or sections of Rigveda, of which only two are currently available-Shakal and Bashkal.

Glory of Rigveda:

Out of 1028 suktas, some philosophical ones like Pururava Sukta, Nasadiya Sukta, Hiranyagarbha Sukta, and social or family-centered Suktas like Pururava Urvashisamvad Sukta are of great value and have become very famous.

Scholars believe that 'Sanskrit drama' developed based on the above-mentioned Samaveda suktas.

Some Suktis from Rigveda:

• Scholars speak about one Truth-God in many ways.
• May that Truth-true knowledge-protect me from all sides.
• Walk together, speak together, and let the same thoughts arise in all your minds.

2. Yajurveda:

The Subject of Yajurveda:

The root word of 'yajur' is 'यज्', which has three meanings: worshiping God, transforming into music, and alms/donation. So, mantras chanted for worship or sacrifice are called 'yajus'. Thus, the 'yajus' found in this Veda are mantras related to various kinds of 'yagna' sacrificial fire and associated texts and procedures. This 'Samhita' is called Yajurveda.

Structure of Yajurveda:

There are a total of 1975 mantras (verses) in Yajurveda. They are divided into two parts: Purvarchik and Uttararchik. In 'Purvarchik', there are praises for Gods like 'Agni', 'Indra', and 'Soma', and it contains 650 'Mantras'. There are 1225 'Mantras' in 'Uttararchik', which include chantable mantras for Vedic rituals of Gods like Dasharaj, Samvatsar, and Ekah.

We find references indicating that there were countless branches of Samaveda. Today, only three branches are available:

• Shukla Yajurveda and
• Krishna Yajurveda.

Yajnavalkya worshiped the Sun God, and the knowledge he gained from the sun through its blessings is called Shukla Yajurveda. Two branches of Shukla Yajurveda are prevalent today:

• Kanva and
• Madhyandin.

But there are four branches of Krishna Yajurveda prevalent today:

• Taiteriya
• Maitrayani
• Kathak and
• Kapishthal Kath.

Some Suktas from Yajurveda:

• Let me attain truth, staying away from what is not true.
• Let me look at all animals with a friendly view.

3. Samveda:

Theme of Samveda:

The word 'sam' means singing or song. Thus, Samaveda is a collection of recitable, chantable mantras, or chants. During sacrificial rites, the 'Udgata' priest chanted eulogies of Gods at the beginning. Lord Krishna has glorified Samaveda in the Bhagavadgita, saying, "I am Samaveda among the Vedas."

Structure of Samveda:

There are a total of 1875 mantras (verses) in Samaveda. They are divided into two parts: Purvarchik and Uttararchik. In 'Purvarchik', there are eulogies of Gods like 'Agni', 'Indra', and 'Soma', and it consists of 650 'Mantras'. There are 1225 'Mantras' in 'Uttararchik', which include chantable mantras for Vedic rituals of Gods like Dasharaj and Samvatsar Ekah.

We find references indicating that there were countless branches of Samaveda. Today, only three branches are available:

• 'Kauthumiya'
• Ranayaniya and
• Jaiminiya.

Peculiarity of Samveda:

It is believed that the science of music originated from Samaveda. Four types of songs, namely, Gramgan, Aranyagan, Udgan, and Uhyagan, are quite well-known.

Atharvaveda:

Introduction:

The root word of 'Atharva' is 'Tharva', which means motion or gesture. So, a situation that lacks motion or gesture is called 'Atharva'. In this Veda, Atharvaveda, sermons suggesting steadiness, motionlessness, or yoga restricting 'chittavritti'–'Chitta' means mind and 'Vritti' means waves that can affect mind thoughts–are present. Some believe that 'Atharva' is the name of a Rishi.

A Rishi named Atharva envisioned these mantras. This Veda is also called 'Atharvangiras'. However, it did not have a place, meaning it was not included in 'Vedatrayi', but recognizing its importance and usefulness, it is glorified like other three Vedas.

Structure of Atharvaveda:

There are twenty 'Kands' (books/sections) in Atharvaveda. In each Kand, there are different numbers of suktas. The total number of suktas is 736. In this Veda, there are 6,000 mantras. There were nine (branches) sections of Atharvaveda, but today only two are available:

• Shaunik and
• Pippalad.

Theme of Atharvaveda:

The Atharvaveda mainly includes remedies for recovering from illness, agriculture and husbandry, administration, spiritual knowledge, pride for the motherland, and various modes of sacrificial rites. Some Suktas here are 'Prithvisukta', 'Kalsukta', 'Brahmacharyasukta', 'Vivasukta', and 'Madhuvidya Sukta' in this Veda.

Hymns (Suktis) from Atharvaveda:

The son is he who always performs, meaning observes, his father's moral principles and always adjusts with his mother's feelings and thoughts.

Oh 'Manava', you gather money as much as you can and distribute it generously.

The earth is my mother, and I am the son of the earth.

Upanishad:

The word Upanishad is made up of three words: 'उप' + 'नि' + 'शद्'. Therefore, the word means knowledge of the supreme spirit gained by sitting humbly at the guru's feet. The Upanishads are also called 'Vedanta' as they are found in the concluding chapters of the Vedas. The Upanishads primarily focus on the self, meaning soul, the world, and the supreme being. Among these, the concepts of 'Brahman' (ultimate reality) and soul/self are central. Hence, Upanishads are also called 'Brahmavidya'.

There are more than 200 Upanishads, of which 108 are considered essential. Out of these excellent 108 Upanishads, only ten are of great importance and are well-known. They are as follows: Ish, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chhandogya, and Brihadaranyaka.

ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरिः। ऐतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं दश।।

That is, Ishavasya, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chhandogya, and Brihadaranyaka-these ten are the main Upanishads.

Some scholars also include the Shvetashvatara Upanishad in the list of important Upanishads. Thus, the total number of significant Upanishads becomes eleven. Adi Shankaracharya and many other teachers have written beautiful commentaries on them.

These Upanishads, which are believed to be very ancient, are thought to have been composed between 1500 B.C. and the period before the birth of Buddha, around 700 B.C.

The Upanishads present a very mysterious, profound philosophy of truth in a very simple way through conversations between Yajnavalkya-Maitreyi, Yama-Nachiketa, and Uddalaka-Aruni-Shvetaketu. Topics like the supreme being, the soul, the form of the world, the stage of salvation, the means of achieving it, and the evolution of 'Srushti' (universe) are delineated in the Upanishads. The central theme of Upanishads is that by knowing the supreme being, everything else can be known.

Upanishads are considered the best works among the philosophical texts of the world. This literature guides the world towards peace. The philosophy of Upanishads offers practical solutions to all global problems.

Kathopanishad:

This Upanishad is part of the 'Katha' branch of Krishna Yajurveda. The subject of this Upanishad imparts 'Brahmavidya' (knowledge of the supreme element) through the conversation between Nachiketa and Yamaraja. Yamaraja offers three wishes to Nachiketa. Nachiketa is a child, but he is very learned. His father, who tries to earn 'Punya' (fruits of religious deeds) by donating old cows, symbolizes a 'worldly soul', while Nachiketa is free from worldly attachment.

Nachiketa goes to Yamaraja as a result of his father's anger. There, he pleases Yamaraja and acquires knowledge of the supreme element. This story of Kathopanishad is very awe-inspiring. The 'Mantras'-hymns of Kathopanishad-possess a child-like charm, sweetness, and simplicity.

Mahakavi Bhasa - Great Poet Bhasa

The great poet Kalidasa, in the introduction to his first play 'Malavikagnimitram', mentions 'प्रथितयशसां भास-कविपुत्र-सौमिल्लकादीनाम्...' and with these words, introduces Bhasa as a very famous poet. After that, until the fourteenth century, Bhasa and his composition 'Swapnavasavadattam' are mentioned in Sanskrit literature, but for some reasons, this complete work (did not remain popular) was lost from prevalence.

Consequently, through this, there was an acquaintance with Bhasa's dramas. The world of Sanskrit literature was not familiar with his works. In 1912, Professor T. Ganpat Shastri somehow acquired the manuscripts of plays written on palm leaves in Malayalam script. He then edited those works in Devanagari script and published them under the title 'Bhasanatachakra'. From that time, thirteen lost plays by Bhasa became popular again.

Bhasa is a very ancient playwright. It is believed that he lived in the third or fourth century B.C. Critical analysis of his plays suggests that he was a worshipper of Lord Vishnu; he must have been a scholar of Vedas, History, Puranas, and religious books (scriptures). He must also have been a keen observer of Nature and a student of human behavior.

Works of Bhasa

The following 13 dramas are accepted as Bhasa's works. These works are divided into five categories according to their content. They are as under:

(a) Plays Based on the Mahabharat

• Dootvakya
• Dootghatotkach
• Urubhang

1. Dootvakyam:

This is a one-act play based on the story of a Mahabharat. In it Krishna himself goes to Kauravas as the messanger of Pandavas. This play holds the title Dootvakya on the basis of the sentences of advice by the messanger.

Shri Krishna goes to Duryodhana as the messanger of Pandavas, an attendent, Shri Krishna as Purushottam. Hence Duryodhan gets angry and advises the congomoration to insult Krishna by not standing up to show respect. All the Kings stand up as soon as krishna comes. Duryodhan gets little disturbed.

Shri Krishna proposes to give Pandavas their share as their right to inheritance. Shree Krishna and Duryodhan had a very hot discussion. Shri Krishna assumes his huge form and holds Sudarshan Chakra to punish Duryodhana. At last Shri Krishna quit the assembly.

There is a discussion of polities in this play. In this play lone character acting of Duryodhan draws our attention picturesque presentation of the scence of Vastraharan. An experiment of divine speech - oracle swows speciality of dramatic art. Presenting weapons on the stage the poet has created a beautiful picture.

2. दूतघटोत्कचम्:

In this, it is the imagination of the poet that as messangers Bhim and the son of Hidimba-Ghatotkacha give a message of Krishna to Duryodhana.

In the beginning of the one-act play, a soldier comes to Dhritrashtra and tells him that Abhimanyu was killed in a very heartless manner. Dhrutrashtra gets shocked and forecasts the death of Jaydrath who was responsible for the killing of Abhimanyu. Dulshala, the wife of Jaydrath laments.

Duryodhana, Dushasan and Shakuni feeling very happy at the death of Abhimanyu go to bow down to Dhrutrashtra but he does not bless them. Duryodhan enters into a discussion with his father. In the meantime they learn about the vow taken by Arjun to kill Jayadratha. Duryodhan decides to protect Jayadrath's Chariot.

The messanger Ghatotkach tells the message to the grandfather Dhrutashtra asking him what would be his condition if his hundred sons would die. Moreover, Ghatotkach says that with the rising of the sun Arujun would attack them fiecely.

This one-act play is his own imaginary creation. Ghatotkacha a very little known character of Mahabharat is highlighted here. Duryodhan's pride and his vanity i.e. false pride against valour of Ghatotkacha is depicted in an unfailing manner. Here the poetic sentiment of bravery is so well expressed that it undoubtedly touches emotions.

3. अरुभड्गमः

In this one-act play Bhim breaks Duryodhan's thigh in a club-fight. As this is the plot the play is given the title 'Urubhangam'. Main character of the story is Duruodhana. This one-act play based on an incident in Mahabharat is a tragedy. Mahabharata war continued for eighteen days and in it 99 Kauravas were destroyed. Only Duryodhana was alive.

Aclub-fight between Bhim and Duryodhana begins. Shri Krishna pointing at his thigh gives a sign to Bhima. Bhim hits Duryodhana with his club on his thigh in almost fatal manner. Bhim violates the principle of club-fight. Duryodhana's thigh breaks and falls on the ground. Blind king Dhritrashtra, Gandhari with a bandage on her eyes, wives of Duryodhana and son Durjay come to the battle field. They all moan the death of Duryodhana. With the death of Duryodhana the play becomes a tragedy.

Main poetic sentiment of 'Urubhanagam' is tragedy and it becomes very deep and sound. Death is shown on the stage and there the principle of drama is violated. This play in Sanskrit literature is a very rare example of a tragedy. Depiction of meeting with the family is quite heart-touching. The character of Duryodhana in this play is well uplifted.

4. पश्ररात्रम्:

This three-act play is based on Mahabharat and in it Drona is given the fixed period of three days to bring news about Pandavas. And if it is done Duryodhana will give the Pandavas their share of Kingdom. For this the title is given 'Panchratra'. In the beginning of the play the grand sacrificial fire held by Duryodhana is eulogised. Drona as the gift, asks Duryodhana to give half of the Kingdom to Pandavas. Duryodhana accepts Drona's demand with a condition that he brings information about pandavas in five nights.

Information is gathered within five nights and Duryodhana accepts Drona's demand to give half of the kingdom to Pandavas. This is not there in the original story of Mahabharat. The playwright has presented here something quite contradictory to the original story.

The plawright adding imaginery incidents has created quite an awe-inspiring play. In this play the character of Duryodhan is highlighted. Here Duryodhana who refuses to give even an inch of the land without war in the original Mahabharata story, gives away half of the kingdom obeying his guru. This play by Bhasa is very pleasing very beautiful.

5. कर्णभारम्ः

This one-act play is based on the story of Mahabharat Analysis of the burden/responsibility of Karna is the plot of this play. This fine one-act play glorifies Karna's nature of giving alms. The title Karnabhar can also be interpreted in a different way. According to some an armour and Carrings become the burdan for Karna. Moreover responsibility assigned to him of becoming the commander in-chief is also believed to be his burden.

When Karma enters (comes to) the battlefield sitting in a chariot with Shalyaraj, in the beginning of the play, he is objected. He remembers that Parshuram had cursed him because, telling lies that he was a brahmine had learnt the art of using weapons from him, and he remembered that his art of using weapons would definitaly fail him.

In the meantime Indra in the glise of a brahmin came to him and asks for big donation/alm. Karna offers him cows, horses, elephants gold as alm, but the brahmin refuses to accept all that. At last Karna offers his armour and ear-rings attached to his body though karna understands that it was the intrigue of Indra. The brahmin immediately accepts that.

Indra much grived with repenence sends (goddess) Vimala through a messanger of God and Karna will be able to kill any one of the Pandavas with the help of that prowess. Karna, even after this does not accept defeat and gets ready for battle. The character of Karna is very nicely delineated in this play and he very well commands sympathy of all of us and not only Shalya.

6. मध्यमव्यायोगः

This one-act play is based on the story of Mahabharat. This play is of the 'Vyayoga' type. Bhim is the third among the Pandavas. In this play Bhima comes in contact with Hidamba and hence, the title Madhyamvyayoga is quite apt. This title is also appropriate as in it Bhim and the middle son of a Brahmin meet.

In the main scene of the play there is a description of the Brahmin who is very much frightened by the terror of Ghatotkach. Ghatotkach is in two minds. On one hand his responsibility is to carry out his mother's order to take one man for her meal and on the other is his respect for a brahmin. Ultimately, he decides to execute the order of his mother. He tells the family of the brahmin that any one of them should go with him. The family decides to send the middle son with Ghatotkach.

Ghatotkach shouts loudly aksing the middle son to go with him. Hearing that Bhimsen presents himself as the middle son. The brahmin requests Bhimsen to save his family. Bhim recognises Ghatotkach as his son. He asks Ghatotkach to take him with physical force. the use of strength (physical force) and fraudulent power fails. In the end, Bhimsen himself goes to Ghatotkach's mother. Hidamba recognises Bhim sen. Thus, Hidimba and Bhimsen meet. The Brahmin family departs happily.

There is no mention of the meeting between Bhim and Hidamba in the original story of Mahabharata. But Bhasa has with his extraordinary poetic faculty created the character of Ghatotkach Poet bhase has glorified reverance for mother and though Hidimba is devilish human qualities are attributed to her.

7. प्रतिमानाटकम्:

This seven-act play is based on the story of Ramayana. Bharat on his way back from his maternal uncle's house sees the statue of king Dasharath along with the statues of his forefathers and there he learns about the death of his father. So the play is given the title Pratimanatakam.

In this play there is the presentation of events from Rama's going to forest to Rama's coronation. Rama, sita and Laxman prepare for going to forest in place Rama's coronation and Dasharath dies. Bharat is called back from his maternal uncle's place with a message that his father, Dasharath is restless, sick. Bharat seeing the statue of Dasharath along with the statues of his forefather's learns about Dasharath's death and then about Kaikeyi being responsible for Dasharath's death, grieved.

Bharat avoids meeting his mother Kaikeyi. Bharat goes to forest to return the seat of the king to Rama. Bharat, obeying Rama's order returns to Ayodhya with the wooden slippers of Rama.

Rama, staying in forest, worries about the act of making ceremonial offering to his dead father. Ravan in the guise of Brahmin explains Rama that the act of ceremoniel offering to the dead can best be performed by Kanchanpasvamruga. In the meantime Rama chases Kanchanparswamrug. Laxman had gone out to bring back the head of the family, so Ravan kidnapped sita who was all alone. Bharat who was in Ayodhya learns about Sita's kidnapping.

For all these happenings Bharat considers Kaikeyi guilty and she reminds Bharat of the curse of Shravana's parents and says that Dashrath's death, due to the separation from his sons, was certain Bharat was far away. Separation from Rama could have been due to his death or his going far from here. Only for that had asked for Rama's going to forest.

I spoke out fourteen years instead of days out of fright. Bharat pardoned Kaikeyi for her this explanation. Through the conversation of two sages the happenings like killing of Ravan, entrusting Lanka (kingdom of Lanke) to Vibhishan, Sita's ordeal of fire -'Agnipariksha' are mentioned - suggested. The play ends with the coronation of Rama.

The event of Pratimagruh is the original creation of Bhasa. Here the character of Kaikeyi is extalted. The secret of Kaikeyi's promise is the imagination of Bhasa.

8. अभिषेकनाटकरम्ः

There are six acts of this play based on Ramayana - here the coronations of Sugriva, Vibhishan and Rama are narrated and therefore the title given to the play is Abhisheknatakam. According to the plot of play Surgriva and Rama make a treaty to help each other. Sugriva challenges Vali for a battle. They both fight with club and Vali dies because of the arrow aimed by Rama. Then the coronation of sugriv takes place.

Hanuman sets out for Lanka in search of Sita. He introduces himself to Sita in the garden of Ravan. Hanuman gets annoyed seeing the inswting behaviour of Ravan with Sita. He meets Sita and makes a statement of her condition. Sita also asks him to inform Rama about her pains-afflication. Then Rama and monkeys march towards Lanka.

The sea devides itself into two parts and gives way to them Ravan himself starts going to war after the killing of Indrajit and other demons. Rama and Ravan had a very fierce bettle. Rama kills Ravan and entrusts the Kingdom to Vibhishan.

After the killing of Ravan Sita's ordeal of fire and in the end coronation of Rama take palce.

9. प्रतिज्ञायोगन्धरायणम्ः

This four-act play is based on the story of Udayan. In this play Vatsraj Udayan's minister Yasigandhrayan takes a vow twice to get Udayan released from the jail of Ujjayani.

The king Pradyot of Ujjayani had intended to give his daughter Vasavdatta in marriage to Udayan and for that he desired to bring Udayan to his kingdom in any way. Meanwhile, Udayan's personal servant comes with a message that he was entrapped in the elephant fraud and is made a royal captive. Yaugandhrayan takes a vow to take a revenge on Pradyut for this fraud. The (vina-a musical instrument) taken away from Udayan is presented to Vasavadatta.

To set Udayan free Yaugendhrayan comes to Ujjaini. He maddens an elephent and for controlling the elephant when Udayan comes out of the fetters Yaungdharayan plans to help him to run away. He had also planned to take away Vasudatta with the king. Then the news of Udayan's fleeing away on a female elephant named Bhadravati spreads. Yogendrayan hinders Pradyot's army chasing Udayan. In the end he is caught. Pradyot Mahasen and Angarwati consent the secret love marriage of Udayan and Vasavdatta.

10. स्वपनवासवदत्तम्:

In the fifth act of the drama Swapna king Udayan dreams of Vasavdatta. The title of the play is based on this.

This play is said to be the best creation of Bhasa and hence the scholors have showered flowers of praises on it.

Padmavati comes when Vasavdatta and Yougandhrayan were passing through a forest. He, in the guise of a saint, introduces Vasavdatta as his sister and expresses a desire to leave her as his deposit. Padmavati accepts the offer. A celibete in a forest nerrates the happening of Lavanakdahan. The king feels sad hearing about the burning of vasavdatta in a palace. A talk of marriage of Padmavati comes up and it is fixed up with Udayan. The responsibility of weaving a garland rests with Vasavdatta. In the fourth act the king's love for vasuvdatta is expressed by the king while talking to a jester.

Vasavdatta has it secretly and feels very happy. In the fifth act Udayan dreams of Vasavdatta and in dream he tries to convince her. Meanwhile Vasavdatta taking the hanging hand of Udayan who was on the cot puts it on the cot. The king wakes up with her touch, runs to chase her but he fails. The king expresses his doubt before a jester about Vasavdatta being alive.

11. अविमारकम्:

In this seven-act play based on a folktale there is a love-story of Vishnusen and Kurangi.

In this play a prince named Vishnusen kills a demon who takes the form of a sheep. The title of the play is based on this.

A young man named Anjangiri saves Kurangi the daughter of the king Kuntibhoj, from the attack of an elephant when she was taking a leisurely strall in her garden. In this situation both get attracted towards each other. The king receives the news of rescue He starts thinking about his daughter who has come to the marraiagable age.

Kurangi and that young man keeps on meeting with the help of her wet-nurse not ready to believe. The event of Ghoshwati refreshes the memory of Vasavdatta, 'Kanchuki' servent of a herem brings a picture of Vasavdatta. Padmavati feels much surprised seeing it. She talks about a woman of very similar face being in harem.

Then Vasavdatta presents herself in the kingly court. Youngdharayan asks Padmavati to return his deposit. At last Yougandhrayan asks Padmavati to return his deposit. At last Yougandrayan reveling his true self explains his plan to the king. Vasavdatta also presents herself in her true form and the play ends with a happy note.

The king realises the love growing fast between Kurangi and Avimarak. He runs away with a feaer of being caught and attempts to commit suicide. He then getting a mysterious ring from a learned person tries to enter the harem (अन्तःपुर) developing confidence of others in him with the effects of the ring Kurangi suffering from separation tries to end her life committing suicide but Avimarak comes there at that time and saves Kuranji. Both unite in the end.

12. चारुदतम्:

This four-act play is based on a folk-tale. There is a love story of Vanik (bania) Charudatta and a prostitute Vasantsena. The title of the place is based on the name of the hero of the play.

The main poetic sentiment of the play is 'Shrinagar'-romance The hero of the play is brahmin by birth but bania by deeds he was very rich, but giving money in donations he has became poor. The heroine Vasantsena is a famous prostitute of Ujjayini. He loves Charudatta not for his riches but for his qualities. In the play in the depiction of poverty romantic sentiment is planned-weaved. This play remained very successful in entertaining people.

The jester's conversations prompting laughter please the spectars and also have proved very helpful in furthering the story. Dialogues in the play are quite pleasing, heart touching. An important point in this play is that the heroine makes confession of her love and takes a lead to gain the love of the hero.

13. बालचरितम्:

The story weaved in this play is based on Lord Krishna's childhood events described in Harivansh and Puranas. Here the plot covers the story from the birth of Krishna to the killing of Kans in Mathura.

Here the daughter of Nand is shown dead and through this the story is given the dramatic touch. The dialogue between Nand and Vasudev is also the poet's own imagination, Krishna is said to be the seventh son of Vasudev.

In this play the heroic mood - the poetic sentiment of bravery is at the centre. Non-living weapons are brought on the stage as it is found in Dootvakya. In this play there are totally 26 male characters and more than 10 female characters. In this play Krishna is the hero, Balram is the subordinate hero Kans is the villain. With the dialogue ‘Now Vrushthiraj is established - has become famous, the play ends.'

Mahakavi Kalidas

पुरा कवीनां गणनाप्रसङ्गे कनिष्ठिकाधिष्ठितकालिदासा। अद्यापि तत्तुल्यकवेरभावात् अनामिका सार्थवती बभूव॥

Whenever in the ancient times estimate of poets was put the name of Kalidas was always put on the last finger out of five fingers on hand. Since then no other poet like the poet Kalidas is traced. The name of the third finger the ring finger is rightly called a nameless finger.

The great poet Kalidas, who is much praised by those interested in poetry, is known as 'Kavikulguru' in Sanskrit literature. (Seven works are to his credit) He has written seven books Among his these works two are 'Khand Kavyas' - lyric : (1) ऋतुसंहारम्, (2) मेघदूतम् two are Mahakavya - epics (3) रघुवंशम् and (4) कुमारसम्भवम्। and three are plays (5) मालविकाग्निमित्रम् (6) विक्रमोर्वशीयम् and (7) अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम् । (In class XI you are expected to develop familarity with only three plays. Hence here introduction of three plays is given here.)

Plays of Kalidas

1. मालविकागिनमित्रम्ः

This play is Kalidas's first play. There are five acts in it. The main story (plot) is of the love affair of Malvika and the king Agnimitra of Shrung dynastry.

Malvika and Agnimitra get bethrothed. But as a result of the defeat of her brother she had to flee away. After that, she, in disguise enters the harem of Dharini, the queen of Agnimitra. After many ups and downs the Jester succeeds in bringing about their union. Dharini captures Malvika with her friend. The jester comes out successful in helping Malvika and Agnimitra to reunite, under the pretext of a snake bite. In the end the happenings like victory of Agnimitra in a battle, his son's victory over Greeks (Yavanas) and introduction of Malvika as a princess are described. Queen Dharini (helps) creates facility for the marriage of Agnimitra and Malvika.

In this play the love story of Malvika and Agnimitra is presented in a very peculiar style. The poet has made the play very beautiful, attracted towards each other. Urvashi who has returned to heaven performing a role of Lakmi in one play once speaks Pururava instead of Purushottam in a dialogue. This annoys Bharatmuni and he cures Urvashi.

As a result of the curse Urvashi had to come to the earth and on the earth Pururava and Urvashi meet. [Pururava's wife queen Aushinari gives consent to their love.] Once when Pururava and Urvashi where taking a strall in Kumarvan Urvashi gets angry with Parurava and walks away and she turns into the form of a creeper.

The king becomes impolite-almost mad as a result of his separation from Urvashi and searches her, inquires about her. After his many strides he gets her back in the form of a precious stone called Sangamaniya. Urvashi becomes the mother of a brave son Aayu through Pururava. She gets favour of Lord Indra to stay with her husband Pururava throughout life. In the end ceremonial sprinking of water ceremony is performed on their son Aayu as the crown prince.

This play of Mahakavi Kalidas is based on a mythological story and in it there is very subtle presentation of sanyog and separation viprarambh shringar (Romance). In the fourth act of the play the poets love for nature gets reflected at its best. Here human feelings are penpictured very beautifully in nature.

It is said that this play must be originally a three-act play oscilating/swinging between the earth and heaven. The fourth act must have been added to hring about the reunion. And then the poet must have added the fifth act on the occasion of the ceremony of sprinkling ceremonial water on the crown price.

3. अभिज्ञानशाकुनतलम्ः

In this seven-act play, love of Dushyant and Shakuntala is described (while returning from a deer hunt) King Dushyanta happens to stop by the hermit Kanva's ashram, There he sees girls of ashram watering tender plants. There he sees ‘Kanvkanya' Shakuntala and starts longing for her. Shakuntala was assigned the responsibility of receiving guests.

And then it so happened that he had to stay at the asharma to protect the ceremonial performance of a sacrifice. And the foundation got laid for the growth/development/progress of love between Shakuntala and Dushyant. Then both of them marry in the ceremony of 'Gandharva vivah'. Dushyant returns to his kingdom.

And the sage Durvasa gives a curse to Shakuntala lost in the ideas of Dushyanta and as a result Dushyanta forgets her.

Sage Kanve learns about the 'Gandharva Vivah' through celetial voice and he sees Shakuntala off for her husband's house. Cursed Dushyanta forgets Shakuntala, does not recognise her and does not accept her, Shakuntala's mother Menaka takes her to the sage Maricha's ashram. The ring that had slipped from Shakuntala's finger was found by a fisherman and that ring is sent to Dushyanta by his guards.

He recollects Shakuntala as soon as he sees the ring and he feels much remorse for deserting Shakuntala Assisting Gods he goes to the ashram of sage Marichi, Here he meets a child Sarvadaman playing with a baby lion and counting the teeth of a lion he relises that servadaman is the son of Shakuntala. After Dushyanta, Shakuntala and Sarvadaman (Bharat) meet. In the end Dushyant being blessed by the sage returns with his wife and son.

Kavi Kalidas had an inspiration for this extraordinary play from 'Shushka Sambhavparva' of Mahabharat. But Kalidas created a charming fascinating work out of the skeleton he found in Mahabharat. For this only it is said, “There are plays in literature and the play Shakuntala is the most beautiful of all the plays.” Such a well praised play is not the among the plays of India only but of the whole world. German poet gete had become so happy reading it that he keeping the book Shakuntal on his heand, danced.

In the fourth act of this play there is the delineation of sending a girl. At the time of sending off shakuntala Tapovan, sage kanva, Gautami friends of shakuntala. Birds and animals, trees and creepers-All become sentimental, emotional. This play is worth enjoying from begining to end because of its excellent innovation of the original story of Mahabharata knitting of contend and presentation delineation of characters.

Panchtantra

One of the many peculiarities of the Sanskrit literature is its animal stories, fables or ethical stories. These stories were composed - orally told in the ancient age. Its roots are found in vedas and Upanishadas and in their traditions only these animal stories (tables) are included. These stories are based on nature of birds and animals and their characterstics say peculiar habits and limitations. There we find sermons which are useful to the human society in their day-to-day life Panchtantra and Hitopadesh are the main collections of animal fables.

Pandit Vishnusharma is the author of Panchtantra. We find the background of its construction runs like this (Pandit Sharma actually compiled the stories) Aking named Amarshakti lived in Mahilarophy city in south. He had three foolish sons. The king was much worried about educating the sons and making them experts in political science.

He tried to educate them in many ways but he did not suceed. When the king requested the pandits to make his sons clever in political science, Pandit Vishnu Sharma accepted the responsibility. He accepted the responsibility with a view to make those three sons expert in political science He told them very interesting stories which becamse well-known as Panchtantra.

The title 'Panchtantra' gives us to understand that there are five sections say parts. These five sections parts are -

• 1. Mitrabhed
• 2. Mitraprapti
• 3. Sandhivigrah
• 4. Labdhapranesh and
• 5. Aparikshitkarak.

1. Mitrabheda

The separation of friends - advising to on guard against those who developing discard among friends, try to accomplish their selfish ends. Main story in this section is of an and a lion. Two jackals introduce them (a bull and a lion) to each other and they become good friends. One of those twojakals envies that friendship and playing very cunningly lead to breaking up the friendship between the two near friends. Ultimately the bull dies and the jackal holds a high status in the eyes of the lion.

2. Mitraprapti

The gaining of friends In this section the stories of friendship are given. Here we find the stories of four friends tortoise, a dear, a mouse and a crow and their chivalry and bravery. Due to the friendship developed between virtuous persons after good thinking all the four friends overcome difficulties very successfully and remain helpful to one another.

3. Sandivigrah

War and peace. We find in this section stories of war between owls and crows. So its another title is 'Kakolukiyam'. It is shown here how risky it is to cultivate friendship with one who was an enemy earlier.

4. Labtha Pranash

Loss of gains. 'Labdh' means 'gains' and 'pranash' means ruins. Loss of gains is the theme of all the stories in this section. Main story in this section is of a monkey and a crocodile. It is shown here how things are grabbed from foolish perosns.

5. अपरिक्षितकारक -

In this section we have the stories which tell us about the consequences of tasty actions Here the experience of a barber, as a result of his actions done without proper thought, are described. We get a lesson from the stories in this section that without considering the situation properly nothing must be done. In Panchtantra we find short and long stories written in simple and easy to understand language. The stories though short are very effective. One story grows from another story.

We find peculiar blending of prose and poetry in these stories. The characters in the story narrate (slokas) hymns in support of their opinion. Egoistic and hypocratic nature, intriguing nature of courtiers, peculiarities of women's nature are much critised in a very humorous manner. We find in those stories concrete and pleasing/joyous thoughts about the human life presented. Panchtantra is the greatest gifts of India to the world literature and it is translated into almost all languages of the world. It is said to be a unique work because of its many peculiarities.

Scientific Works Of Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit is the oldest language of India and the whole world. Source of Indian culture is preserved in this language. In Sanskrit language on one hand best literary and philosophical works are constructed/written, preserved and those became well-known worldwide and on the other hand some best scientific works here are also written. In no other ancient language of the world are written books as many branches of sciences as are written in Sanskrit.

Veda is the root of all these scientific work. In Vedas and the vedic literature written after vedas some elements of experimental science are found. Before the period of Mahabharata original scientific works discussing the sciences like astrology, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, vastushstra, geology, physiology, arthashastra, commerce were